Author name code: leamon ADS astronomy entries on 2022-09-14 author:Leamon, Robert J. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Title: Uniting The Sun's Hale Magnetic Cycle and `Extended Solar Cycle' Paradigms Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Scherrer, Phillip H.; Svalgaard, Leif; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2022arXiv220809026M Altcode: Through meticulous daily observation of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field the Wilcox Solar Observatory (WSO) has catalogued two magnetic (Hale) cycles of solar activity. Those two (~22-year long) Hale cycles have yielded four ($\sim$11-year long) sunspot cycles (numbers 21 through 24). Recent research has highlighted the persistence of the "Extended Solar Cycle" (ESC) and its connection to the fundamental Hale Cycle - albeit through a host of proxies resulting from image analysis of the solar photosphere, chromosphere and corona. This short manuscript presents the correspondence of the ESC, the surface toroidal magnetic field evolution, and the evolution of the Hale Cycle. As Sunspot Cycle 25 begins, interest in observationally mapping the Hale and Extended cycles could not be higher given potential predictive capability that synoptic scale observations can provide. Title: Deciphering Solar Magnetic Activity: The Solar Cycle Clock Authors: Leamon, Robert J.; McIntosh, Scott W.; Title, Alan M. Bibcode: 2022FrASS...9.6670L Altcode: The Sun's variability is controlled by the progression and interaction of the magnetized systems that form the 22-year magnetic activity cycle (the "Hale Cycle") as they march from their origin at ∼55° latitude to the equator, over ∼19 years. We will discuss the end point of that progression, dubbed "terminator" events, and our means of diagnosing them. In this paper we expand on the Extended Solar Cycle framework to construct a new solar activity "clock" which maps all solar magnetic activity onto a single normalized epoch based on the terminations of Hale Magnetic Cycles. Defining phase 0*2π on this clock as the Terminators, then solar polar field reversals occur at ∼ 0.2*2π, and the geomagnetically quiet intervals centered around solar minimum start at ∼ 0.6*2π and end at the terminator, thus lasting 40% of the cycle length. At this onset of quiescence, dubbed a "pre-terminator," the Sun shows a radical reduction in active region complexity and, like the terminator events, is associated with the time when the solar radio flux crosses F10.7 = 90 sfu. We use the terminator-based clock to illustrate a range of phenomena that further emphasize the strong interaction of the global-scale magnetic systems of the Hale Cycle: the vast majority, 96%, of all X-flares happen between the Terminator and pre-Terminator. In addition to the X-rays from violent flares, rapid changes in the number of energetic photons—EUV spectral emission from a hot corona and the F10.7 solar radio flux—impinging on the atmosphere are predictable from the Terminator-normalized unit cycle, which has implications for improving the fidelity of atmospheric modelling. Title: Interactions Among Magnetic Bands in Extended Solar Cycles Authors: Belucz, Bernadett; Dikpati, Mausumi; McIntosh, Scott; Erdelyi, Robertus; Leamon, Robert Bibcode: 2021AGUFMSH55D1875B Altcode: The extended solar cycle, observationally revealed from the evolutions of ephemeral regions, X-ray and EUV brightpoints, plages, filaments and faculae, indicates the existence of oppositely-directed double magnetic bands at the bottom dynamo-layer in each hemisphere. The band-pairs in the North and South hemispheres migrate towards the equator and plausibly evolve in amplitude as the cycle progresses. By studying the MHD interactions of these band-pairs among themselves in each hemisphere, as well as with their opposite-hemisphere's counterparts, we show that the cross-equatorial interactions between the low-latitude bands (which are essentially the active cycle's bands) in the North and South effectively start when the band-separation across the equator is less than 30 degrees (the bands are at 15-degree latitude or lower in the North and South). Analyzing the properties of this interaction we show how certain changes in the energy extractions by various stresses from the magnetic fields can lead to the start of the declining phase of the solar cycle. Title: Deciphering Solar Magnetic Activity: 140 Years of the `Extended Solar Cycle' - Mapping the Hale Cycle Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; Egeland, Ricky; Dikpati, Mausumi; Altrock, Richard C.; Banerjee, Dipankar; Chatterjee, Subhamoy; Srivastava, Abhishek K.; Velli, Marco Bibcode: 2021SoPh..296..189M Altcode: 2020arXiv201006048M We investigate the occurrence of the "extended solar cycle" (ESC) as it occurs in a host of observational data spanning 140 years. Investigating coronal, chromospheric, photospheric, and interior diagnostics, we develop a consistent picture of solar activity migration linked to the 22-year Hale (magnetic) cycle using superposed epoch analysis (SEA) and previously identified Hale cycle termination events as the key time for the SEA. Our analysis shows that the ESC and Hale cycle, as highlighted by the terminator-keyed SEA, is strongly recurrent throughout the entire observational record studied, some 140 years. Applying the same SEA method to the sunspot record confirms that Maunder's butterfly pattern is a subset of the underlying Hale cycle, strongly suggesting that the production of sunspots is not the fundamental feature of the Hale cycle, but the ESC is. The ESC (and Hale cycle) pattern highlights the importance of 55∘ latitude in the evolution, and possible production, of solar magnetism. Title: Prediction of the first and last X-Flares of Cycle 25 Active Regions Authors: Leamon, Robert; McIntosh, Scott Bibcode: 2021AGUFMSH55D1881L Altcode: The Suns variability is controlled by the progression and interaction of the magnetized systems that form the 22-year magnetic activity cycle (the "Hale Cycle") as they march from their origin at ~55 latitude to the equator, over ~19 years. Recently, we introduced the concept of "Terminators," the endpoints of those activity bands' progress, and a new, and more insightful, way of looking at timing solar cycles than counting spots [McIntosh et al. 2019; Leamon et al. 2020]. Rather than the canonical minimum number of sunspots (which is arbitrary, and depends on sum of four decreasing and increasing quantities -- the number of new and old cycle polarity spots in each hemisphere), consider a precise date -- when there is no more old cycle polarity flux left on the disk. Expressed in this way, a Terminator is the end of a Hale Magnetic Cycle. Based on these Terminators, we construct a new solar cycle phase clock which maps all solar magnetic activity onto a single normalized epoch. If the Terminators appear at phase 0 * 2, then solar polar field reversals occur at ~0.2 * 2, and the geomagnetically quiet intervals centered around solar minimum, which start at 0.6 * 2 and end at the Terminator are thus 40% of the normalized cycle. These "pre-Terminators" show a radical reduction of complexity of active regions and (like the Terminators) are well approximated by the time when the solar radio flux, F10.7 = 90 sfu. We demonstrate that the vast majority, 96%, of all X-flares happen between the Terminator and pre-Terminator; the July 2021 event appears to fall just outside this window, but it is highly possible, if not probable that the Cycle 24 Terminator occurs between the date of abstract submission and the Fall Meeting itself. Further, sunspot max amplitude, the aa geomagnetic index, and F10.7 and spectral irradiance are all predictable from a normalized unit cycle from Terminator to Terminator. Title: Response to "Limitations in the Hilbert Transform Approach to Locating Solar Cycle Terminators" by R. Booth Authors: Leamon, Robert J.; McIntosh, Scott W.; Chapman, Sandra C.; Watkins, Nicholas W. Bibcode: 2021SoPh..296..151L Altcode: Booth (Solar Phys.296, 108, 2021; hereafter B21) is essentially a critique of the Hilbert transform techniques used in our paper (Leamon et al., Solar Phys.295, 36, 2020; hereafter L20) to predict the termination of solar cycles. Here we respond to his arguments; our methodology and parameter choices do extract a mathematically robust signature of terminators from the historical sunspot record. We agree that the attempt in L20 to extrapolate beyond the sunspot record gives a failed prediction for the next terminator of May 2020, and we identify both a possible cause and remedy here. However, we disagree with the B21 assessment that the likely termination of Solar Cycle 24 is two years after the date predicted in L20, and we show why. Title: The Sun's Magnetic (Hale) Cycle and 27 Day Recurrences in the aa Geomagnetic Index Authors: Chapman, S. C.; McIntosh, S. W.; Leamon, R. J.; Watkins, N. W. Bibcode: 2021ApJ...917...54C Altcode: 2021arXiv210102569C We construct a new solar cycle phase clock which maps each of the last 18 solar cycles onto a single normalized epoch for the approximately 22 yr Hale (magnetic polarity) cycle, using the Hilbert transform of daily sunspot numbers (SSNs) since 1818. The occurrences of solar maxima show almost no discernible Hale cycle dependence, consistent with the clock being synchronized to polarity reversals. We reengineer the Sargent R27 index and combine it with our epoch analysis to obtain a high time resolution parameter for 27 day recurrence in aa, ⟨acv(27)⟩. This reveals that the transition to recurrence, that is, to an ordered solar wind dominated by high-speed streams, is fast, with an upper bound of a few solar rotations. It resolves an extended late declining phase which is approximately twice as long on even Schwabe cycles as odd. Galactic cosmic ray flux rises in step with ⟨acv(27)⟩ but then stays high. Our analysis also identifies a slow-timescale trend in SSN that simply tracks the Gleissberg cycle. We find that this trend is in phase with the slow-timescale trend in the modulus of sunspot latitudes, and in antiphase with that of the R27 index. Title: Termination of Solar Cycles and Correlated Tropospheric Variability Authors: Leamon, Robert J.; McIntosh, Scott W.; Marsh, Daniel R. Bibcode: 2021E&SS....801223L Altcode: The Sun provides the energy required to sustain life on Earth and drive our planet's atmospheric circulation. However, establishing a solid physical connection between solar and tropospheric variability has posed a considerable challenge. The canon of solar variability is derived from the 400 years of observations that demonstrates the waxing and waning number of sunspots over an 11( ish) year period. Recent research has demonstrated the significance of the underlying 22 years magnetic polarity cycle in establishing the shorter sunspot cycle. Integral to the manifestation of the latter is the spatiotemporal overlapping and migration of oppositely polarized magnetic bands. We demonstrate the impact of "terminators"—the end of Hale magnetic cycles—on the Sun's radiative output and particulate shielding of our atmosphere through the rapid global reconfiguration of solar magnetism. Using direct observation and proxies of solar activity going back some six decades we can, with high statistical significance, demonstrate a correlation between the occurrence of terminators and the largest swings of Earth's oceanic indices: the transition from El Niño to La Niña states of the central Pacific. This empirical relationship is a potential source of increased predictive skill for the understanding of El Niño climate variations, a high stakes societal imperative given that El Niño impacts lives, property, and economic activity around the globe. A forecast of the Sun's global behavior places the next solar cycle termination in mid 2020; should a major oceanic swing follow, then the challenge becomes: when does correlation become causation and how does the process work? Title: A clock for the Sun's magnetic Hale cycle and 27 day recurrences in the aa geomagnetic index Authors: Chapman, Sandra; McIntosh, Scott; Leamon, Robert; Watkins, Nicholas Bibcode: 2021EGUGA..23.2555C Altcode: We construct a new solar cycle phase clock which maps each of the last 18 solar cycles onto a single normalized epoch for the approximately 22 year Hale (magnetic polarity) cycle, using the Hilbert transform of daily sunspot numbers (SSN) since 1818. We use the clock to study solar and geomagnetic climatology as seen in datasets available over multiple solar cycles. The occurrence of solar maxima on the clock shows almost no Hale cycle dependence, confirming that the clock is synchronized with polarity reversals. The odd cycle minima lead the even cycle minima by ~ 1.1 normalized years, whereas the odd cycle terminators (when sunspot bands from opposite hemispheres have moved to the equator and coincide, thus terminating the cycle, McIntosh(2019)) lag the even cycle terminators by ~ 2.3 normalized years. The average interval between each minimum and terminator is thus relatively extended for odd cycles and shortened for even ones. We re-engineer the R27 index that was orignally proposed by Sargent(1985) to parameterize 27 day recurrences in the aa index. We perform an epoch analysis of autocovariance in the aa index using the Hale cycle clock to obtain a high time resolution parameter for 27 day recurrence, <acv(27)>. This reveals that the transition to recurrence, that is, to an ordered solar wind dominated by high speed streams, is fast, occurring within 2-3 solar rotations or less. It resolves an extended late declining phase which is approximately twice as long on even Schwabe cycles as odd ones. We find that Galactic Cosmic Ray flux rises in step with <acv(27)> but then stays high. Our analysis also identifies a slow timescale trend in SSN that simply tracks the Gleissberg cycle. We find that this trend is in phase with the slow timescale trend in the modulus of sunspot latitudes, and in antiphase with that of the R27 index. Title: Solar Wind Helium Abundance Heralds Solar Cycle Onset Authors: Alterman, Benjamin L.; Kasper, Justin C.; Leamon, Robert J.; McIntosh, Scott W. Bibcode: 2021SoPh..296...67A Altcode: 2020arXiv200604669A We study the solar wind helium-to-hydrogen abundance's (AHe) relationship to solar cycle onset. Using OMNI/Lo data, we show that AHe increases prior to sunspot number (SSN) minima. We also identify a rapid depletion and recovery in AHe that occurs directly prior to cycle onset. This AHe shutoff happens at approximately the same time across solar wind speeds (vsw) and the time between successive AHe shutoffs is typically on the order of the corresponding solar cycle length. In contrast to AHe's vsw-dependent phase lag with respect to SSN (Alterman and Kasper, 2019), AHe shutofff's concurrence across vsw likely implies it is independent of solar wind acceleration and driven by a mechanism near or below the photosphere. Using brightpoint (BP) measurements to provide context, we infer that AHe shutoff is likely related to the overlap of adjacent solar cycles and the equatorial flux cancelation of the older, extended solar cycle during solar minima. Title: Solar Wind Turbulence from 1 to 45 AU Authors: Pine, Z. B.; Smith, C. W.; Hollick, S.; Argall, M. R.; Vasquez, B. J.; Isenberg, P. A.; Schwadron, N.; Joyce, C.; Sokol, J. M.; Bzowski, M.; McLaurin, M. L.; Hamilton, K. E.; Leamon, R. J. Bibcode: 2020AGUFMSH0160014P Altcode: We review five recent publications that extend magnetic turbulence studies that were pioneered using data from 1 AU to now include Voyager observations from 1977 through 1990 and 1 to 45 AU. We examine the spectral scale at which evidence of dissipation sets in and evaluate the spectral indices, anisotropies, polarizations, and spectral transfer of energy. We compare the latter to predictions from transport theory and the rate of energy injection through wave excitation by newborn interstellar pickup ions. While many of our results agree with conclusions from 1 AU, we find that the magnetic spectral anisotropy that relates to the underlying anisotropy of the wave vectors exceeds theoretical predications for reasons we are unable to determine. We also establish that wave energy excitation by newborn interstellar pickup H+ forms the dominant energy source driving the turbulence beyond 10 AU. Title: The Hale Cycle Clock Authors: Leamon, R. J.; McIntosh, S. W.; Chapman, S. C.; Watkins, N. W. Bibcode: 2020AGUFMSH053..02L Altcode: The Sun's variability is controlled by the progression and interaction of the magnetized systems that form the 22-year magnetic activity cycle (the ``Hale Cycle'') as they march from their origin at ∼55 degrees latitude to the equator, over some 19 years. We will discuss the end point of that progression, dubbed ``terminator'' events [McIntosh et al. 2019], and our means of diagnosing them [McIntosh et al. 2019, Leamon et al., 2020]. Based on these terminations of Hale Magnetic Cycles, we construct a new solar cycle phase clock which maps all solar magnetic activity onto a single normalized epoch [Chapman et al, 2020]. If the Terminators appear at phase 0 * 2π , then solar polar field reversals occur at ∼{}0.2 * 2π , and the geomagnetically quiet intervals centered around solar minimum, which start at 0.6 * 2π and end at the terminator are thus 40% of the normalized cycle. These ``pre-terminators'' show a radical reduction of complexity of active regions and (like the terminators) are well approximated by the time when the solar radio flux, F10.7=90 sfu.
There is thus immediate applicability for the Hale Cycle Clock to predict when the first and last X-flares and other severe Space Weather events of Cycle 25 will be (with the first possibly already happening before the meeting), and we further will discuss the applicability for confirming the length of Cycle 25 as early as its polar field reversal near maximum. McIntosh et al., "What the Sudden Death of Solar Cycles Can Tell Us About the Nature of the Solar Interior," Solar Physics 294, 88 (2020) Leamon et al., "Timing Terminators: Forecasting Sunspot Cycle 25 Onset," Solar Physics 295, 36 (2020) Title: Overlapping Magnetic Activity Cycles and the Sunspot Number: Forecasting Sunspot Cycle 25 Amplitude Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Chapman, Sandra; Leamon, Robert J.; Egeland, Ricky; Watkins, Nicholas W. Bibcode: 2020SoPh..295..163M Altcode: 2020arXiv200615263M The Sun exhibits a well-observed modulation in the number of spots on its disk over a period of about 11 years. From the dawn of modern observational astronomy, sunspots have presented a challenge to understanding—their quasi-periodic variation in number, first noted 175 years ago, has stimulated community-wide interest to this day. A large number of techniques are able to explain the temporal landmarks, (geometric) shape, and amplitude of sunspot "cycles," however, forecasting these features accurately in advance remains elusive. Recent observationally-motivated studies have illustrated a relationship between the Sun's 22-year (Hale) magnetic cycle and the production of the sunspot cycle landmarks and patterns, but not the amplitude of the sunspot cycle. Using (discrete) Hilbert transforms on more than 270 years of (monthly) sunspot numbers we robustly identify the so-called "termination" events that mark the end of the previous 11-yr sunspot cycle, the enhancement/acceleration of the present cycle, and the end of 22-yr magnetic activity cycles. Using these we extract a relationship between the temporal spacing of terminators and the magnitude of sunspot cycles. Given this relationship and our prediction of a terminator event in 2020, we deduce that sunspot Solar Cycle 25 could have a magnitude that rivals the top few since records began. This outcome would be in stark contrast to the community consensus estimate of sunspot Solar Cycle 25 magnitude. Title: Solar Wind Helium Abundance Heralds the Onset of Solar Cycle 25 Authors: Alterman, B. L.; Kasper, J. C.; Leamon, R. J.; McIntosh, S. W. Bibcode: 2020AGUFMSH053..01A Altcode: We study the solar wind helium-to-hydrogen abundance's (Ahe) relationship to solar cycle onset. We identify a rapid depletion and recovery in Ahe immediately prior to sunspot number (SSN) minima. This depletion happens at approximately the same time across solar wind speeds, implying that it is formed by a mechanism distinct from the one that drives Ahe's solar cycle scale variation and speed-dependent phase offset with respect to SSN. As Ahe's rapid depletion and recovery have already occurred and Ahe is now increasing as it has following previous solar minima, we infer that solar cycle 25 has already begun. Title: Deciphering Solar Magnetic Activity. The Solar Cycle Clock Authors: Leamon, Robert; McIntosh, Scott; Title, Alan Bibcode: 2020arXiv201215186L Altcode: The Sun's variability is controlled by the progression and interaction of the magnetized systems that form the 22-year magnetic activity cycle (the "Hale Cycle'') as they march from their origin at $\sim$55 degrees latitude to the equator, over $\sim$19 years. We will discuss the end point of that progression, dubbed "terminator'' events, and our means of diagnosing them. Based on the terminations of Hale Magnetic Cycles, we construct a new solar activity 'clock' which maps all solar magnetic activity onto a single normalized epoch. The Terminators appear at phase $0 * 2\pi$ on this clock (by definition), then solar polar field reversals commence at $\sim0.2 * 2\pi$, and the geomagnetically quiet intervals centered around solar minimum, start at $\sim0.6 * 2\pi$ and end at the terminator, lasting 40% of the normalized cycle length. With this onset of quiescence, dubbed a "pre-terminator,'' the Sun shows a radical reduction in active region complexity and (like the terminator events) is associated with the time when the solar radio flux crosses F10.7=90 sfu -- effectively marking the commencement of solar minimum conditions. In this paper we use the terminator-based clock to illustrate a range of phenomena that further emphasize the strong interaction of the global-scale magnetic systems of the Hale Cycle. arXiv:2010.06048 is a companion article. Title: Solar Wind Turbulence from 1 to 45 au. II. Analysis of Inertial-range Fluctuations Using Voyager and ACE Observations Authors: Pine, Zackary B.; Smith, Charles W.; Hollick, Sophia J.; Argall, Matthew R.; Vasquez, Bernard J.; Isenberg, Philip A.; Schwadron, Nathan A.; Joyce, Colin J.; Sokół, Justyna M.; Bzowski, Maciej; Kubiak, Marzena A.; Hamilton, Kathleen E.; McLaurin, Megan L.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2020ApJ...900...92P Altcode: We examine both Voyager and Advanced Composition Explorer magnetic field measurements at frequencies that characterize the inertial range using traditional polarization techniques that are designed to characterize plasma waves. Although we find good agreement with both the anticipated spectral index of the power spectrum and the scaling of magnetic power with heliocentric distance, we do not find that the polarization analyses yield results that can be readily described by plasma wave theory. The fluctuations are not circularly polarized and there is a markedly reduced coherence between the components of the fluctuation. The degree of polarization is also generally low, although not as low as the coherence, and the minimum variance direction is essentially random. We conclude that traditional plasma wave theory may not offer a good description for inertial-range fluctuations. Title: Solar Wind Turbulence from 1 to 45 au. III. Anisotropy of Magnetic Fluctuations in the Inertial Range Using Voyager and ACE Observations Authors: Pine, Zackary B.; Smith, Charles W.; Hollick, Sophia J.; Argall, Matthew R.; Vasquez, Bernard J.; Isenberg, Philip A.; Schwadron, Nathan A.; Joyce, Colin J.; Sokół, Justyna M.; Bzowski, Maciej; Kubiak, Marzena A.; Hamilton, Kathleen E.; McLaurin, Megan L.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2020ApJ...900...93P Altcode: We examine both Voyager and Advanced Composition Explorer magnetic field measurements at frequencies that characterize the inertial range and evaluate the anisotropy of the fluctuations as they relate to both the compressive component and underlying wavevector anisotropy of the turbulence. The magnetic fluctuation anisotropy as it relates to the compressive component is directly dependent upon both the plasma beta of the thermal proton component and the ratio of magnetic fluctuation magnitude to the strength of the mean magnetic field. This has been seen before at 1 au. The magnetic fluctuation anisotropy in the plane perpendicular to the mean magnetic field, which is a measure of the anisotropy of the underlying wavevector distribution, should depend on the angle between the mean magnetic field and the radial direction and should be confined to values between one and the index of the power spectrum, which is typically 5/3. Our results show that the average of this anisotropy exceeds the value of the spectral index and is out of bounds with the theory. Although the results are suggestive of past analyses, we find that spherical expansion of the turbulence may offer at least a partial explanation of the apparent amplification of this measured anisotropy. Title: Advanced Composition Explorer Observations of Turbulence from 1998 through 2002: Data Intervals Authors: Hamilton, Kathleen E.; Smith, Charles W.; Vasquez, Bernard J.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2020ApJS..250...15H Altcode: We have published several papers describing solar wind turbulence at 1 au using data from the Advanced Composition Explorer spacecraft. In an oversight that we regret, we never published the list of data intervals that constitute the database of observations. As we have recently returned to this database of observations in comparisons of turbulent observations by the Voyager spacecraft against established results from 1 au, we wish to now correct our oversight and publish the list of intervals that constitute the 1 au observations. Along with this, we show the distribution of some common solar wind parameters as contained within the database. Title: Solar Wind Turbulence from 1 to 45 au. I. Evidence for Dissipation of Magnetic Fluctuations Using Voyager and ACE Observations Authors: Pine, Zackary B.; Smith, Charles W.; Hollick, Sophia J.; Argall, Matthew R.; Vasquez, Bernard J.; Isenberg, Philip A.; Schwadron, Nathan A.; Joyce, Colin J.; Sokół, Justyna M.; Bzowski, Maciej; Kubiak, Marzena A.; Hamilton, Kathleen E.; McLaurin, Megan L.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2020ApJ...900...91P Altcode: As part of a published effort to study low-frequency magnetic waves excited by newborn interstellar pickup ions seen by the Voyager spacecraft, we developed a set of control intervals that represent the background turbulence when the observations are not dominated by wave excitation. This paper begins an effort to better understand solar wind turbulence from 1 to 45 au while spanning greater than one solar cycle. We first focus on the diagnostics marking the onset of dissipation. This includes an expected break in the power spectrum at frequencies greater than the proton cyclotron frequency and a resultant steepening of the spectrum at higher frequencies. Contrary to what is established at 1 au, we only see the spectral break in rare instances. The expected scaling of the spectral index with the turbulence rate is seen, but it is not as clearly established as it was at 1 au. We also find that both Voyager data from 1 to 45 au and Advanced Composition Explorer data from 1 au show significant bias of the magnetic helicity at dissipation scales when the dissipation-range power-law spectral index steepens. We conclude that dissipation dynamics are similar throughout the heliosphere in so far as we have examined to date. Title: Quantifying the Solar Cycle Modulation of Extreme Space Weather Authors: Chapman, S. C.; McIntosh, S. W.; Leamon, R. J.; Watkins, N. W. Bibcode: 2020GeoRL..4787795C Altcode: By obtaining the analytic signal of daily sunspot numbers since 1818 we construct a new solar cycle phase clock that maps each of the last 18 solar cycles onto a single normalized 11 year epoch. This clock orders solar coronal activity and extremes of the aa index, which tracks geomagnetic storms at the Earth's surface over the last 14 solar cycles. We identify geomagnetically quiet intervals that are 40% of the normalized cycle, ±2π/5 in phase or ±2.2 years around solar minimum. Since 1868 only two severe (aa>300 nT) and one extreme (aa>500 nT) geomagnetic storms occurred in quiet intervals; 1-3% of severe (aa>300 nT) geomagnetic storms and 4-6% of C-, M-, and X-class solar flares occurred in quiet intervals. This provides quantitative support to planning resilience against space weather impacts since only a few percent of all severe storms occur in quiet intervals and their start and end times are quantifiable. Title: Timing Terminators: Forecasting Sunspot Cycle 25 Onset Authors: Leamon, Robert J.; McIntosh, Scott W.; Chapman, Sandra C.; Watkins, Nicholas W. Bibcode: 2020SoPh..295...36L Altcode: 2019arXiv190906603L Recent research has demonstrated the existence of a new type of solar event, the "terminator." Unlike the Sun's signature events, flares and coronal mass ejections, the terminator most likely originates in the solar interior, at or near the tachocline. The terminator signals the end of a magnetic activity cycle at the Sun's equator and the start of a sunspot cycle at mid-latitudes. Observations indicate that the time difference between these events is very short, less than a solar rotation, in the context of the sunspot cycle. As the (definitive) start and end point of solar activity cycles the precise timing of terminators should permit new investigations into the meteorology of our star's atmosphere. In this article we use a standard method in signal processing, the Hilbert transform, to identify a mathematically robust signature of terminators in sunspot records and in radiative proxies. Using a linear extrapolation of the Hilbert phase of the sunspot number and F10.7 cm solar radio flux time series we can achieve higher fidelity historical terminator timing than previous estimates have permitted. Further, this method presents a unique opportunity to project, from analysis of sunspot data, when the next terminator will occur, May 2020 (+4 , −1.5 months), and trigger the growth of Sunspot Cycle 25. Title: Timing Terminators: Forecasting Sunspot Cycle 25 Onset, Activity Levels and Overcoming Social Constraints That Hamper Progress Authors: Leamon, R. J.; McIntosh, S. W. Bibcode: 2019AGUFMSA11C3234L Altcode: Recent research has demonstrated the existence of a new type of solar event, the ``terminator''. Unlike the Sun's signature events, flares and Coronal Mass Ejections, the terminator takes place in the solar interior. The terminator signals the end of a magnetic activity cycle at the Sun's equator and the start of a sunspot cycle at mid latitudes. Observations indicate that the time difference between these events is very short, less than a solar rotation, in the context of the sunspot cycle. As the (definitive) start and end point of solar activity cycles the precise timing of terminators should permit new investigations into the meteorology of our star's atmosphere. In this letter we use a standard method in signal processing, the Hilbert transform, to identify a mathematically robust signature of terminators in sunspot records and in radiative proxies. Using this technique we can achieve higher fidelity terminator timing than previous estimates have permitted. Further, this method presents a unique opportunity to project when the next terminator will occur, 2020.33(± 0.16), and trigger the growth of sunspot cycle 25. We also will use this method to show why Cycle 23 was unusually long, why the Cycle 23-24 minimum was unusually quiet, and why neither of these occurrences will happen with the end of Cycle 24. Ignoring the wealth of observational evidence and viewing the solar activity cycle as merely the growth and decay of sunspot number is one ``social constraint that hampers progress" to be overcome. Title: What the Sudden Death of Solar Cycles Can Tell Us About the Nature of the Solar Interior Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; Egeland, Ricky; Dikpati, Mausumi; Fan, Yuhong; Rempel, Matthias Bibcode: 2019SoPh..294...88M Altcode: 2019arXiv190109083M We observe the abrupt end of solar-activity cycles at the Sun's Equator by combining almost 140 years of observations from ground and space. These "terminator" events appear to be very closely related to the onset of magnetic activity belonging to the next solar cycle at mid-latitudes and the polar-reversal process at high latitudes. Using multi-scale tracers of solar activity we examine the timing of these events in relation to the excitation of new activity and find that the time taken for the solar plasma to communicate this transition is of the order of one solar rotation - but it could be shorter. Utilizing uniquely comprehensive solar observations from the Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) and Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) we see that this transitional event is strongly longitudinal in nature. Combined, these characteristics suggest that information is communicated through the solar interior rapidly. A range of possibilities exist to explain such behavior: for example gravity waves on the solar tachocline, or that the magnetic fields present in the Sun's convection zone could be very large, with a poloidal field strengths reaching 50 kG - considerably larger than conventional explorations of solar and stellar dynamos estimate. Regardless of the mechanism responsible, the rapid timescales demonstrated by the Sun's global magnetic-field reconfiguration present strong constraints on first-principles numerical simulations of the solar interior and, by extension, other stars. Title: Terminators: Predicting the end of sunspot cycle 24 and its impacts on space weather, weather and climate. Authors: Leamon, Robert; McIntosh, Scott W. Bibcode: 2019AAS...23430503L Altcode: Recent research has demonstrated the existence of a new type of solar "event." Unlike the signature events in the corona, flares and Coronal Mass Ejections, this event, the Terminator, takes place in the solar interior (at the Sun's equator), signalling the end of a magnetic activity cycle and the start of a sunspot cycle at mid latitudes - all at the same time. Observations indicate that the hand-over between the termination of the magnetic activity cycle and the blooming of the next sunspot cycle could be very short, possibly much less than a solar rotation. Here we demonstrate the impact of these terminators on the Sun's radiative output and particulate shielding of our atmosphere through the dramatically rapid reconfiguration of solar magnetism. Using direct observation and proxies of solar activity going back six decades we can, with high statistical significance, demonstrate an apparent correlation between the solar cycle terminations and the largest swings of Earth's oceanic indices - a previously overlooked correspondence. We then use a standard method in signal processing, the Hilbert transform, to investigate the presence, and identify the signature, of terminators in solar magnetic and radiative proxies. Using many decades of such data we can achieve higher fidelity on terminator timing than previous estimates have allowed. The distinct signature presents a unique opportunity to project when the next terminator will occur, April 2020 (± two months) and sunspot cycle 25 will commence its growth phase. Further, April 2020 implies cycle 24 will only be 9.25 years long; we offer an explanation as to why cycle 24 is short (or rather, why cycle 23 and its "unusual solar minimum" was so long). Finally, should a major ENSO swing follow next year, our challenge becomes: when does correlation become causation and how does the process work? Title: Signature of Extended Solar Cycles as Detected from Ca II K Synoptic Maps of Kodaikanal and Mount Wilson Observatory Authors: Chatterjee, Subhamoy; Banerjee, Dipankar; McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; Dikpati, Mausumi; Srivastava, Abhishek K.; Bertello, Luca Bibcode: 2019ApJ...874L...4C Altcode: 2019arXiv190303598C In recent years there has been a resurgence of the study of extended solar cycles (ESCs) through observational proxies mainly in extreme ultraviolet. But most of them are limited only to the space-based era covering only about two solar cycles. Long-term historical data sets are worth examining for the consistency of ESCs. The Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KSO) and the Mount Wilson Observatory (MWO) are two major sources of long-term Ca II K digitized spectroheliograms covering the temporal spans of 1907-2007 and 1915-1985 respectively. In this study, we detected supergranule boundaries, commonly known as networks, using the Carrington maps from both KSO and MWO data sets. Subsequently we excluded the plage areas to consider only the quiet Sun (QS) and detected small-scale bright features through intensity thresholding over the QS network. Latitudinal density of those features, which we named “Network Bright Elements,” could clearly depict the existence of overlapping cycles with equatorward branches starting at latitude ≈55° and taking about 15 ± 1 yr to reach the equator. We performed a superposed epoch analysis to depict the similarity of those extended cycles. Knowledge of such equatorward band interaction, for several cycles, may provide critical constraints on solar dynamo models. Title: Termination of Solar Cycles and Correlated Tropospheric Variability Authors: Leamon, Robert J; McIntosh, Scott W.; Marsh, Daniel R. Bibcode: 2018arXiv181202692L Altcode: The Sun provides the energy required to sustain life on Earth and drive our planet's atmospheric circulation. However, establishing a solid physical connection between solar and tropospheric variability has posed a considerable challenge across the spectrum of Earth-system science. The canon of solar variability, the solar fiducial clock, lies almost exclusively with the 400 years of human telescopic observations that demonstrates the waxing and waning number of sunspots, over an 11(ish) year period. Recent research has demonstrated the critical importance of the underlying 22-year magnetic polarity cycle in establishing the shorter sunspot cycle. Integral to the manifestation of the latter is the spatio-temporal overlapping and migration of oppositely polarized magnetic bands. The points when these bands emerge at high solar latitudes and cancel at the equator are separated by almost 20 years. Here we demonstrate the impact of these "termination" points on the Sun's radiative output and particulate shielding of our atmosphere through the dramatically rapid reconfiguration of solar magnetism. These events reset the Sun's fiducial clock and present a new portal to explore the Sun-Earth connection. Using direct observation and proxies of solar activity going back six decades we can, with high statistical significance, demonstrate an apparent correlation between the solar cycle terminations and the largest swings of Earth's oceanic indices---a previously overlooked correspondence. Forecasting the Sun's global behavior places the next solar termination in early 2020; should a major oceanic swing follow, our challenge becomes: when does correlation become causation and how does the process work? Title: The Extended Solar Cycle: Muddying the Waters of Solar/Stellar Dynamo Modeling Or Providing Crucial Observational Constraints? Authors: Srivastava, Abhishek K.; McIntosh, Scott W.; Arge, N.; Banerjee, Dipankar; Dikpati, Mausumi; Dwivedi, Bhola N.; Guhathakurta, Madhulika; Karak, B. B.; Leamon, Robert J.; Matthew, Shibu K.; Munoz-Jaramillo, Andres; Nandy, D.; Norton, Aimee; Upton, L.; Chatterjee, S.; Mazumder, Rakesh; Rao, Yamini K.; Yadav, Rahul Bibcode: 2018FrASS...5...38S Altcode: 2018arXiv180707601S In 1844 Schwabe discovered that the number of sunspots increased and decreased over a period of about 11 years, that variation became known as the sunspot cycle. Almost eighty years later, Hale described the nature of the Sun's magnetic field, identifying that it takes about 22 years for the Sun's magnetic polarity to cycle. It was also identified that the latitudinal distribution of sunspots resembles the wings of a butterfly showing migration of sunspots in each hemisphere that abruptly start at mid-latitudes (about ±35(o) ) towards the Sun's equator over the next 11 years. These sunspot patterns were shown to be asymmetric across the equator. In intervening years, it was deduced that the Sun (and sun-like stars) possess magnetic activity cycles that are assumed to be the physical manifestation of a dynamo process that results from complex circulatory transport processes in the star's interior. Understanding the Sun's magnetism, its origin and its variation, has become a fundamental scientific objective the distribution of magnetism, and its interaction with convective processes, drives various plasma processes in the outer atmosphere that generate particulate, radiative, eruptive phenomena and shape the heliosphere. In the past few decades, a range of diagnostic techniques have been employed to systematically study finer scale magnetized objects, and associated phenomena. The patterns discerned became known as the ``Extended Solar Cycle'' (ESC). The patterns of the ESC appeared to extend the wings of the activity butterfly back in time, nearly a decade before the formation of the sunspot pattern, and to much higher solar latitudes. In this short review, we describe their observational patterns of the ESC and discuss possible connections to the solar dynamo as we depart on a multi-national collaboration to investigate the origins of solar magnetism through a blend of archived and contemporary data analysis with the goal of improving solar dynamo understanding and modeling. Title: The Heliospheric Meteorology Mission: A Mission to DRIVE our Understanding of Heliospheric Variability Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2018FrASS...5...21M Altcode: To make transformational scientific progress with the space weather enterprise the Sun, Earth, and heliosphere must be studied as a coupled system, comprehensively. Rapid advances were made in the study, and forecasting, of terrestrial meteorology half a century ago that accompanied the dawn of earth observing satellites. Those assets provided a global perspective on the Earth's weather systems and the ability to look ahead of the observer's local time. From a heliospheric, or space, weather perspective we have the same fundamental limitation as the terrestrial meteorologists had - by far the majority of our observing assets are tied to the Sun-Earth line - our planet's "local time" with respect to the Sun. This perspective intrinsically limits our ability to "see what is coming around the solar limb" far less to gain any insight into the global patterns of solar weather and how they guide weather throughout the heliosphere. We propose a mission concept - the Heliospheric Meteorology Mission (HMM) - to sample the complete magnetic and thermodynamic state of the heliosphere inside 1AU using a distributed network of deep space hardened smallsats that encompass the Sun. The observations and in situ plasma measurements made by the fleet of HMM smallsats would be collected, and assimilated into current operational space weather models. Further, the HMM measurements would also being used in an nationally coordinated research effort - at the frontier of understanding the coupled heliospheric system. Title: The Longitudinal Evolution of Equatorial Coronal Holes Authors: Krista, Larisza D.; McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2018AJ....155..153K Altcode: In 2011, three satellites—the Solar-Terrestrial RElations Observatory A & B, and the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)—were in a unique spatial alignment that allowed a 360° view of the Sun. This alignment lasted until 2014, the peak of solar cycle 24. Using extreme ultraviolet images and Hovmöller diagrams, we studied the lifetimes and propagation characteristics of coronal holes (CHs) in longitude over several solar rotations. Our initial results show at least three distinct populations of “low-latitude” or “equatorial” CHs (below 65^\circ latitude). One population rotates in retrograde direction and coincides with a group of long-lived (over sixty days) CHs in each hemisphere. These are typically located between 30° and 55^\circ , and display velocities of ∼55 m s-1 slower than the local differential rotation rate. A second, smaller population of CHs rotate prograde, with velocities between ∼20 and 45 m s-1. This population is also long-lived, but observed ±10° from the solar equator. A third population of CHs are short-lived (less than two solar rotations), and they appear over a wide range of latitudes (±65°) and exhibit velocities between -140 and 80 m s-1. The CH “butterfly diagram” we developed shows a systematic evolution of the longer-lived holes; however, the sample is too short in time to draw conclusions about possible connections to dynamo-related phenomena. An extension of the present work to the 22 years of the combined SOHO-SDO archives is necessary to understand the contribution of CHs to the decadal-scale evolution of the Sun. Title: Terminator 2020: Get Ready for the "Event" of The Next Decade Authors: McIntosh, S. W.; Leamon, R. J.; Fan, Y.; Rempel, M.; Dikpati, M. Bibcode: 2017AGUFMSH22B..06M Altcode: The abrupt end of solar activity cycles 22 and 23 at the Sun's equator are observed with instruments from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO), and Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). These events are remarkable in that they rapidly trigger the onset of magnetic activity belonging to the next solar cycle at mid-latitudes. The triggered onset of new cycle flux emergence leads to blossoming of the new cycle shortly thereafter. Using small-scale tracers of magnetic solar activity we examine the timing of the cycle ``termination points'' in relation to the excitation of new activity and find that the time taken for the solar plasma to communicate this transition is less than one solar rotation, and possibly as little as a eight days. This very short transition time implies that the mean magnetic field present in the Sun's convection zone is approximately 80 kG. This value may be considerably larger than conventional explorations estimate and therefore, have a significant dynamical impact on the physical appearance of solar activity, and considerably impacting our ability to perform first-principles numerical simulations of the same. Should solar cycle 24 [and 25] continue in their progression we anticipate that a termination event of this type should occur in the 2020 timeframe. PSP will have a front row seat to observe this systemic flip in solar magnetism and the induced changes in our star's radiative and partiuculate output. Such observations may prove to be critical in assessing the Sun's ability to force short term evolution in the Earth's atmosphere. Title: Predicting the La Niña of 2020-21: Termination of Solar Cycles and Correlated Variance in Solar and Atmospheric Variability Authors: Leamon, R. J.; McIntosh, S. W. Bibcode: 2017AGUFMSH42A..05L Altcode: Establishing a solid physical connection between solar and tropospheric variability has posed a considerable challenge across the spectrum of Earth-system science. Over the past few years a new picture to describe solar variability has developed, based on observing, understanding and tracing the progression, interaction and intrinsic variability of the magnetized activity bands that belong to the Sun's 22-year magnetic activity cycle. The intra- and extra-hemispheric interaction of these magnetic bands appear to explain the occurrence of decadal scale variability that primarily manifests itself in the sunspot cycle. However, on timescales of ten months or so, those bands posses their own internal variability with an amplitude of the same order of magnitude as the decadal scale. The latter have been tied to the existence of magnetized Rossby waves in the solar convection zone that result in surges of magnetic flux emergence that correspondingly modulate our star's radiative and particulate output. One of the most important events in the progression of these bands is their (apparent) termination at the solar equator that signals a global increase in magnetic flux emergence that becomes the new solar cycle. We look at the particulate and radiative implications of these termination points, their temporal recurrence and signature, from the Sun to the Earth, and show the correlated signature of solar cycle termination events and major oceanic oscillations that extend back many decades. A combined one-two punch of reduced particulate forcing and increased radiative forcing that result from the termination of one solar cycle and rapid blossoming of another correlates strongly with a shift from El Niño to La Niña conditions in the Pacific Ocean. This shift does not occur at solar minima, nor solar maxima, but at a particular, non-periodic, time in between. The failure to identify these termination points, and their relative irregularity, have inhibited a correlation to be observed and physical processes to be studied. This result potentially opens the door to a broader understanding of solar variability on our planet and its weather. Ongoing tracking of solar magnetic band migration indicates that Cycle 24 will terminate in the 2020 timeframe and thus we may expect to see an attendant shift to La Niña conditions at that time. Title: Deciphering Solar Magnetic Activity: Spotting Solar Cycle 25 Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2017FrASS...4....4M Altcode: 2017arXiv170204414M We present observational signatures of solar cycle 25 onset. Those signatures are visibly following a migratory path from high to low latitudes. They had starting points that are asymmetrically offset in each hemisphere at times that are 21-22 years after the corresponding, same polarity, activity bands of solar cycle 23 started their migration. Those bands define the so-called "extended solar cycle." The four magnetic bands currently present in the system are approaching a mutually cancelling configuration, and solar minimum conditions are imminent. Further, using a tuned analysis of the daily band latitude-time diagnostics, we are able to utilize the longitudinal wave number (m=1) variation in the data to more clearly reveal the presence of the solar cycle 25 bands. This clarification illustrates that prevalently active longitudes (different in each hemisphere) exist at mid-latitudes presently, lasting many solar rotations, that can be used for detailed study over the next several years with instruments like the Spectrograph on IRIS, the Spectropolarimeter on Hinode, and, when they come online, similar instruments on the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) as we watch those bands evolve following the cancellation of the solar cycle 24 activity bands at the equator late in 2019. Title: The detection of Rossby-like waves on the Sun Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Cramer, William J.; Pichardo Marcano, Manuel; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2017NatAs...1E..86M Altcode: Rossby waves are a type of global-scale wave that develops in planetary atmospheres, driven by the planet's rotation1. They propagate westward owing to the Coriolis force, and their characterization enables more precise forecasting of weather on Earth2,3. Despite the massive reservoir of rotational energy available in the Sun's interior and decades of observational investigation, their solar analogue defies unambiguous identification4-6. Here we analyse a combined set of images obtained by the Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory (STEREO) and the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) spacecraft between 2011 and 2013 in order to follow the evolution of small bright features, called brightpoints, which are tracers of rotationally driven large-scale convection7. We report the detection of persistent, global-scale bands of magnetized activity on the Sun that slowly meander westward in longitude and display Rossby-wave-like behaviour. These magnetized Rossby waves allow us to make direct connections between decadal-scale solar activity and that on much shorter timescales. Monitoring the properties of these waves, and the wavenumber of the disturbances that they generate, has the potential to yield a considerable improvement in forecast capability for solar activity and related space weather phenomena. Title: Coronal Holes and Open Magnetic Flux over Cycles 23 and 24 Authors: Lowder, Chris; Qiu, Jiong; Leamon, Robert Bibcode: 2017SoPh..292...18L Altcode: 2016arXiv161207595L As the observational signature of the footprints of solar magnetic field lines open into the heliosphere, coronal holes provide a critical measure of the structure and evolution of these lines. Using a combination of Solar and Heliospheric Observatory/Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SOHO/EIT), Solar Dynamics Observatory/Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (SDO/AIA), and Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory/Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (STEREO/EUVI A/B) extreme ultraviolet (EUV) observations spanning 1996 - 2015 (nearly two solar cycles), coronal holes are automatically detected and characterized. Coronal hole area distributions show distinct behavior in latitude, defining the domain of polar and low-latitude coronal holes. The northern and southern polar regions show a clear asymmetry, with a lag between hemispheres in the appearance and disappearance of polar coronal holes. Title: Driving the Heliospheric Jellyfish Authors: Leamon, R. J.; Mcintosh, S. W. Bibcode: 2016AGUFMSH31B2550L Altcode: Recent observational work has demonstrated that the enigmatic sunspotcycle and global magnetic environment of the Sun which source theeruptive events and modulate the solar wind, respectively, can beexplained in terms of the intra- and extra-hemispheric interaction ofmagnetic activity bands that belong to the 22-year magnetic polaritycycle. Those activity bands appear to be anchored deep in the Sun'sconvective interior and governed by the rotation of our star's radiativezone. We have also observed that those magnetic bands exhibit strongquasi-annual variability in the rotating convecting system which resultsin a significant local modulation of solar surface magnetism, forcingthe production of large eruptive events in each hemisphere that mouldsthe global-scale solar magnetic field and the solar-wind-inflatedheliosphere. Together with significant changes in the Sun's ultraviolet(UV), extreme ultraviolet (EUV), and X-Ray irradiance, these eruptivefluctuations ensnare all the Heliosphere (all of Heliophysics) like thetentacles of a jellyfish, and can be inferred in variations of suchwide-ranging phenomena as the South Atlantic Anomaly, the thermosphere,the radiation belts, and the can address ``Has Voyager left theHeliosphere?'' Title: Coronal Holes and Magnetic Flux Ropes Interweaving Solar Cycles Authors: Lowder, Chris; Yeates, Anthony; Leamon, Robert; Qiu, Jiong Bibcode: 2016usc..confE..67L Altcode: Coronal holes, dark patches observed in solar observations in extreme ultraviolet and x-ray wavelengths, provide an excellent proxy for regions of open magnetic field rooted near the photosphere. Through a multi-instrument approach, including SDO data, we are able to stitch together high resolution maps of coronal hole boundaries spanning the past two solar activity cycles. These observational results are used in conjunction with models of open magnetic field to probe physical solar parameters. Magnetic flux ropes are commonly defined as bundles of solar magnetic field lines, twisting around a common axis. Photospheric surface flows and magnetic reconnection work in conjunction to form these ropes, storing magnetic stresses until eruption. With an automated methodology to identify flux ropes within observationally driven magnetofrictional simulations, we can study their properties in detail. Of particular interest is a solar-cycle length statistical description of eruption rates, spatial distribution, magnetic orientation, flux, and helicity. Coronal hole observations can provide useful data about the distribution of the fast solar wind, with magnetic flux ropes yielding clues as to ejected magnetic field and the resulting space weather geo-effectiveness. With both of these cycle-spanning datasets, we can begin to form a more detailed picture of the evolution and consequences of both sets of solar magnetic features. Title: Deciphering Solar Magnetic Activity: On Grand Minima in Solar Activity Authors: Mcintosh, Scott; Leamon, Robert Bibcode: 2015FrASS...2....2M Altcode: 2015arXiv150502326M The Sun provides the energy necessary to sustain our existence. While the Sun provides for us, it is also capable of taking away. The weather and climatic scales of solar evolution and the Sun-Earth connection are not well understood. There has been tremendous progress in the century since the discovery of solar magnetism - magnetism that ultimately drives the electromagnetic, particulate and eruptive forcing of our planetary system. There is contemporary evidence of a decrease in solar magnetism, perhaps even indicators of a significant downward trend, over recent decades. Are we entering a minimum in solar activity that is deeper and longer than a typical solar minimum, a "grand minimum"? How could we tell if we are? What is a grand minimum and how does the Sun recover? These are very pertinent questions for modern civilization. In this paper we present a hypothetical demonstration of entry and exit from grand minimum conditions based on a recent analysis of solar features over the past 20 years and their possible connection to the origins of the 11(-ish) year solar activity cycle. Title: The Quasi-Annual Forcing of The Sun’s Eruptive, Radiative, and Particulate Output: Pervasive Throughout The Heliosphere Authors: Leamon, Robert J.; McIntosh, Scott W. Bibcode: 2015TESS....130806L Altcode: The eruptive, radiative, and particulate output of the Sun are modulated by our star’s enigmatic 11-year sunspot cycle. Over the past year we have identified observational signatures which illustrate the ebb and flow of the 11-year cycle - arising from the temporal overlap of migrating activity bands which belong to the 22-year magnetic activity cycle. (At the 2012 Fall AGU Meeting, Leamon & McIntosh presented a prediction of minimum conditions developing in 2017 and Cycle 25 sunspots first appearing in late 2019.) As a consequence of this work we have deduced that the latitudinal interaction of the oppositely signed magnetic activity bands in each hemisphere (and across the equator near solar minimum) dramatically impacts the production of Space Weather events such as flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). The same set of observations also permits us to identify a quasi-annual variability in the rotating convecting system which results in a significant local modulation of solar surface magnetism. That modulation, in turn, forces prolonged periods of significantly increased flare and CME production, as well as significant changes in the Sun's ultraviolet (UV), extreme ultraviolet (EUV), and X-Ray irradiance. These fluctuations manifest themselves throughout the Heliosphere (throughout Heliophysics) and can be inferred in variations of such wide-ranging phenomena as the South Atlantic Anomaly, the thermosphere, the radiation belts, and the can address "Has Voyager left the Heliosphere?" Title: Modified Rossby Waves in the Solar Interior Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Title, Alan M.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2015TESS....110501M Altcode: Using a combination of STEREO/SECCHI/EUVI and SDO/AIA imaging we reveal patterns in the imaging data that are consistent in appearance with global scale rotationally driven waves on the activity bands of the solar magnetic polarity cycle. Title: The solar magnetic activity band interaction and instabilities that shape quasi-periodic variability Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; Krista, Larisza D.; Title, Alan M.; Hudson, Hugh S.; Riley, Pete; Harder, Jerald W.; Kopp, Greg; Snow, Martin; Woods, Thomas N.; Kasper, Justin C.; Stevens, Michael L.; Ulrich, Roger K. Bibcode: 2015NatCo...6.6491M Altcode: 2015NatCo...6E6491M Solar magnetism displays a host of variational timescales of which the enigmatic 11-year sunspot cycle is most prominent. Recent work has demonstrated that the sunspot cycle can be explained in terms of the intra- and extra-hemispheric interaction between the overlapping activity bands of the 22-year magnetic polarity cycle. Those activity bands appear to be driven by the rotation of the Sun's deep interior. Here we deduce that activity band interaction can qualitatively explain the `Gnevyshev Gap'--a well-established feature of flare and sunspot occurrence. Strong quasi-annual variability in the number of flares, coronal mass ejections, the radiative and particulate environment of the heliosphere is also observed. We infer that this secondary variability is driven by surges of magnetism from the activity bands. Understanding the formation, interaction and instability of these activity bands will considerably improve forecast capability in space weather and solar activity over a range of timescales. Title: Grand Minima: Is The Sun Going To Sleep? Authors: Mcintosh, S. W.; Leamon, R. J. Bibcode: 2014AGUFMSH21C4128M Altcode: We explore recent observational work which indicate that the energetics of the sun's outer atmosphere have been on a steady decline for the past decade and perhaps longer. Futher, we show that new investigations into evolution of the Sun's global magnetic activity appear to demonstrate a path through which the Sun can go into, and exit from, a grand activity minimum without great difficulty while retaining an activity cycle - only losing sunspots. Are we at the begining of a new grand(-ish) minimum? Naturally, only time will tell, but the observational evidence hint that one may not be far off to what impact on the Sun-Earth Connection. Title: Solar Coronal Holes and Open Magnetic Flux Authors: Lowder, C.; Qiu, J.; Leamon, R. J.; Longcope, D. W. Bibcode: 2014AGUFMSH13A4081L Altcode: Using SDO/AIA and STEREO/EUVI EUV data in conjunction with an instrument-specific adaptive intensity thresholding algorithm, we are able to track coronal hole boundaries across the entire solar surface at a cadence of 12 hours. SOHO/EIT provides earlier era data, allowing the building EUV coronal hole maps over the course of a solar rotation. We find that for solar cycle 23 the unsigned magnetic flux enclosed by coronal hole boundaries ranges from (2-5)x10^{22} Mx, covering 5%-17% of the solar surface. For solar cycle 24 this flux ranges from (2-4)x10^{22} Mx, covering 5%-10% of the solar surface. Using a surface flux transport model, we compare observational coronal hole boundaries and computed potential open field for solar cycles 23 and 24. From both our observed coronal holes and modeled open magnetic field, we find that low-latitude regions are significant in area, contributing to the total open magnetic flux, and should be considered in more significant detail. Title: On Magnetic Activity Band Overlap, Interaction, and the Formation of Complex Solar Active Regions Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2014ApJ...796L..19M Altcode: 2014arXiv1410.6411M Recent work has revealed a phenomenological picture of the how the ~11 yr sunspot cycle of the Sun arises. The production and destruction of sunspots is a consequence of the latitudinal-temporal overlap and interaction of the toroidal magnetic flux systems that belong to the 22 yr magnetic activity cycle and are rooted deep in the Sun's convective interior. We present a conceptually simple extension of this work, presenting a hypothesis on how complex active regions can form as a direct consequence of the intra- and extra-hemispheric interaction taking place in the solar interior. Furthermore, during specific portions of the sunspot cycle, we anticipate that those complex active regions may be particularly susceptible to profoundly catastrophic breakdown, producing flares and coronal mass ejections of the most severe magnitude. Title: Deciphering Solar Magnetic Activity. I. On the Relationship between the Sunspot Cycle and the Evolution of Small Magnetic Features Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Wang, Xin; Leamon, Robert J.; Davey, Alisdair R.; Howe, Rachel; Krista, Larisza D.; Malanushenko, Anna V.; Markel, Robert S.; Cirtain, Jonathan W.; Gurman, Joseph B.; Pesnell, William D.; Thompson, Michael J. Bibcode: 2014ApJ...792...12M Altcode: 2014arXiv1403.3071M Sunspots are a canonical marker of the Sun's internal magnetic field which flips polarity every ~22 yr. The principal variation of sunspots, an ~11 yr variation, modulates the amount of the magnetic field that pierces the solar surface and drives significant variations in our star's radiative, particulate, and eruptive output over that period. This paper presents observations from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory and Solar Dynamics Observatory indicating that the 11 yr sunspot variation is intrinsically tied to the spatio-temporal overlap of the activity bands belonging to the 22 yr magnetic activity cycle. Using a systematic analysis of ubiquitous coronal brightpoints and the magnetic scale on which they appear to form, we show that the landmarks of sunspot cycle 23 can be explained by considering the evolution and interaction of the overlapping activity bands of the longer-scale variability. Title: Solar Coronal Holes and Open Magnetic Flux Authors: Lowder, Chris; Qiu, Jiong; Leamon, Robert; Longcope, Dana; Liu, Yang Bibcode: 2014shin.confE..27L Altcode: Coronal holes are regions on the Sun"s surface that map the footprints of open magnetic field lines. Using SDO/AIA and STEREO/EUVI EUV data coupled with an adaptive thresholding routine we are able to track the boundaries of coronal holes across the entire solar surface at a cadence of 12 hours. Notably, the combination of AIA and EUVI data allows for the continuous tracking of coronal hole boundary evolution on the far-side of the sun. Incorporating SOHO/EIT data allows access to these boundaries spanning the previous solar cycle. We find that for solar cycle 23 the unsigned magnetic flux enclosed by coronal hole boundaries ranges from (2-5)x10^22 Mx, covering 5%-17% of the solar surface. For solar cycle 24 this flux ranges from (2-4)x10^22 Mx, covering 5%-10% of the solar surface. Notably, from both observational coronal hole boundaries and modeled open magnetic field regions the low-latitude open field contributes significantly to the total open magnetic flux. Using a flux transport model in conjunction with a potential field model, we compare observational coronal holes and computed open field for solar cycles 23 and 24, paying particular attention to the latitudinal distribution of open magnetic field. Carrington rotations 2099 and 2106 are additionally explored in more detail. Title: A Comparison of EUV Coronal Hole Measurements and Modeled Open Magnetic Field Authors: Lowder, Chris; Qiu, Jiong; Leamon, Robert; Longcope, Dana; Liu, Yang Bibcode: 2014AAS...22432338L Altcode: Coronal holes are regions on the Sun's surface that map the footprints of open magnetic field lines. We have developed an automated routine to detect and track boundaries of long-lived coronal holes using full-disk extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) images obtained by SOHO/EIT, SDO/AIA, and STEREO/EUVI. Using these observations in conjunction with the potential field source surface (PFSS) model, we find that from 1996 through 2010, coronal holes extend between 5% and 17% of the solar surface area, with total unsigned open flux varying between (2-5)x1022 Mx. AIA/EUVI measurements spanning 2010 through 2013 mark coronal hole coverage areas of 5% to 10% of total solar surface area, with total unsigned open magnetic flux ranging from (2-4)x1022 Mx. A detailed comparison indicates that coronal holes in low latitudes significantly contribute to the total open magnetic flux. Previous studies using the He I 10830 line or EIT EUV images do not always accurately measure these low latitude coronal holes. Enhanced observations from AIA/EUVI in conjunction with an observation-driven flux transport model allow a more accurate measure of these low latitude coronal holes and their resulting contribution to solar open magnetic flux. Title: The Quasi-Annual Forcing of The Sun’s Eruptive, Radiative, and Particulate Output Authors: Leamon, Robert; McIntosh, Scott W. Bibcode: 2014AAS...22442205L Altcode: The eruptive, radiative, and particulate output of the Sun are modulated by our star’s enigmatic 11-year sunspot cycle. Over the past year we have identified observational signatures which illustrate the ebb and flow of the 11-year cycle - arising from the temporal overlap of migrating activity bands which belong to the 22-year magnetic activity cycle. (At the 2012 Fall AGU Meeting, Leamon & McIntosh presented a prediction of minimum conditions developing in 2017 and Cycle 25 sunspots first appearing in late 2019.) As a consequence of this work we have deduced that the latitudinal interaction of the oppositely signed magnetic activity bands in each hemisphere (and across the equator near solar minimum) dramatically impacts the production of Space Weather events such as flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). The same set of observations also permits us to identify a quasi-annual variability in the rotating convecting system which results in a significant local modulation of solar surface magnetism. That modulation, in turn, forces prolonged periods of significantly increased flare and CME production, as well as significant changes in the Sun's ultraviolet (UV), extreme ultraviolet (EUV), and X-Ray irradiance. Title: Identifying Potential Markers of the Sun's Giant Convective Scale Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Wang, Xin; Leamon, Robert J.; Scherrer, Philip H. Bibcode: 2014ApJ...784L..32M Altcode: 2014arXiv1403.0692M Line-of-sight magnetograms from the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) of the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) are analyzed using a diagnostic known as the magnetic range of influence (MRoI). The MRoI is a measure of the length over which a photospheric magnetogram is balanced and so its application gives the user a sense of the connective length scales in the outer solar atmosphere. The MRoI maps and histograms inferred from the SDO/HMI magnetograms primarily exhibit four scales: a scale of a few megameters that can be associated with granulation, a scale of a few tens of megameters that can be associated with super-granulation, a scale of many hundreds to thousands of megameters that can be associated with coronal holes and active regions, and a hitherto unnoticed scale that ranges from 100 to 250 Mm. We infer that this final scale is an imprint of the (rotationally driven) giant convective scale on photospheric magnetism. This scale appears in MRoI maps as well-defined, spatially distributed concentrations that we have dubbed "g-nodes." Furthermore, using coronal observations from the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on SDO, we see that the vicinity of these g-nodes appears to be a preferred location for the formation of extreme-ultraviolet (and likely X-Ray) brightpoints. These observations and straightforward diagnostics offer the potential of a near real-time mapping of the Sun's largest convective scale, a scale that possibly reaches to the very bottom of the convective zone. Title: Measurements of EUV Coronal Holes and Open Magnetic Flux Authors: Lowder, C.; Qiu, J.; Leamon, R.; Liu, Y. Bibcode: 2014ApJ...783..142L Altcode: 2015arXiv150206038L Coronal holes are regions on the Sun's surface that map the footprints of open magnetic field lines. We have developed an automated routine to detect and track boundaries of long-lived coronal holes using full-disk extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) images obtained by SOHO/EIT, SDO/AIA, and STEREO/EUVI. We measure coronal hole areas and magnetic flux in these holes, and compare the measurements with calculations by the potential field source surface (PFSS) model. It is shown that, from 1996 through 2010, the total area of coronal holes measured with EIT images varies between 5% and 17% of the total solar surface area, and the total unsigned open flux varies between (2-5)× 1022 Mx. The solar cycle dependence of these measurements is similar to the PFSS results, but the model yields larger hole areas and greater open flux than observed by EIT. The AIA/EUVI measurements from 2010-2013 show coronal hole area coverage of 5%-10% of the total surface area, with significant contribution from low latitudes, which is under-represented by EIT. AIA/EUVI have measured much enhanced open magnetic flux in the range of (2-4)× 1022 Mx, which is about twice the flux measured by EIT, and matches with the PFSS calculated open flux, with discrepancies in the location and strength of coronal holes. A detailed comparison between the three measurements (by EIT, AIA-EUVI, and PFSS) indicates that coronal holes in low latitudes contribute significantly to the total open magnetic flux. These low-latitude coronal holes are not well measured with either the He I 10830 line in previous studies, or EIT EUV images; neither are they well captured by the static PFSS model. The enhanced observations from AIA/EUVI allow a more accurate measure of these low-latitude coronal holes and their contribution to open magnetic flux. Title: Coronal electron temperature in the protracted solar minimum, the cycle 24 mini maximum, and over centuries Authors: Schwadron, N. A.; Goelzer, M. L.; Smith, C. W.; Kasper, J. C.; Korreck, K.; Leamon, R. J.; Lepri, S. T.; Maruca, B. A.; McComas, D.; Steven, M. L. Bibcode: 2014JGRA..119.1486S Altcode: Recent in situ observations of the solar wind show that charge states (e.g., the O7+/O6+and C6+/C5+abundance ratios) evolved through the extended, deep solar minimum between solar cycles 23 and 24 (i.e., from 2006 to 2009) reflecting cooler electron temperatures in the corona. We extend previous analyses to study the evolution of the coronal electron temperature through the protracted solar minimum and observe not only the reduction in coronal temperature in the cycles 23-24 solar minimum but also a small increase in coronal temperature associated with increasing activity during the "mini maximum" in cycle 24. We use a new model of the interplanetary magnetic flux since 1749 to estimate coronal electron temperatures over more than two centuries. The reduction in coronal electron temperature in the cycles 23-24 protracted solar minimum is similar to reductions observed at the beginning of the Dalton Minimum (∼1805-1840). If these trends continue to reflect the evolution of the Dalton Minimum, we will observe further reductions in coronal temperature in the cycles 24-25 solar minimum. Preliminary indications in 2013 do suggest a further post cycle 23 decline in solar activity. Thus, we extend our understanding of coronal electron temperature using the solar wind scaling law and compare recent reductions in coronal electron temperature in the protracted solar minimum to conditions that prevailed in the Dalton Minimum. Title: The Evolving Magnetic Scales of the Outer Solar Atmosphere and Their Potential Impact on Heliospheric Turbulence Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Bethge, Christian; Threlfall, James; De Moortel, Ineke; Leamon, Robert J.; Tian, Hui Bibcode: 2013arXiv1311.2538M Altcode: The presence of turbulent phenomena in the outer solar atmosphere is a given. However, because we are reduced to remotely sensing the atmosphere of a star with instruments of limited spatial and/or spectral resolution, we can only infer the physical progression from macroscopic to microscopic phenomena. Even so, we know that many, if not all, of the turbulent phenomena that pervade interplanetary space have physical origins at the Sun and so in this brief article we consider some recent measurements which point to sustained potential source(s) of heliospheric turbulence in the magnetic and thermal domains. In particular, we look at the scales of magnetism that are imprinted on the outer solar atmosphere by the relentless magneto-convection of the solar interior and combine state-of-the-art observations from the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) and the Coronal Multi-channel Polarimeter (CoMP) which are beginning to hint at the origins of the wave/plasma interplay prevalent closer to the Earth. While linking these disparate scales of observation and understanding of their connection is near to impossible, it is clear that the constant evolution of subsurface magnetism on a host of scales guides and governs the flow of mass and energy at the smallest scales. In the near future significant progress in this area will be made by linking observations from high resolution platforms like the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) and Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (ATST) with full-disk synoptic observations such as those presented herein. Title: Connecting Global EUV Coronal Hole Measurements and Open Magnetic Field Boundaries Authors: Lowder, Chris; Qiu, J.; Leamon, R. Bibcode: 2013SPD....44..114L Altcode: This study seeks to further quantify the relationship between the boundaries of coronal holes and open magnetic field regions. Utilizing the combined observations of the SDO:AIA and STEREO:EUVI A/B instruments, nearly full coverage of the solar surface in several EUV filters is available. Using this data we have devised a routine to define global observations of coronal hole boundaries at high cadence. For comparison, several methods of global coronal magnetic field extrapolation were considered, both potential and non-potential. We considered both a direct spatio-temporal comparison of boundaries as well as associated magnetic flux quantities.Abstract (2,250 Maximum Characters): This study seeks to further quantify the relationship between the boundaries of coronal holes and open magnetic field regions. Utilizing the combined observations of the SDO:AIA and STEREO:EUVI A/B instruments, nearly full coverage of the solar surface in several EUV filters is available. Using this data we have devised a routine to define global observations of coronal hole boundaries at high cadence. For comparison, several methods of global coronal magnetic field extrapolation were considered, both potential and non-potential. We considered both a direct spatio-temporal comparison of boundaries as well as associated magnetic flux quantities. Title: EUV Coronal Holes as a Proxy for Open Magnetic Field Regions Authors: Lowder, Chris; Qiu, Jiong; Leamon, Robert Bibcode: 2013enss.confE.101L Altcode: Coronal holes are regions marked by a decreased intensity in the extreme ultraviolet and x-ray wavelengths. Associated with regions of open magnetic field, plasma is allowed to escape along open magnetic field lines resulting in a rarefied plasma below. This study seeks to quantify the relationship between boundaries of coronal holes and open magnetic field. Using a combination of STEREO and SDO data in EUV wavelengths, we can provide a full solar surface map of coronal hole boundaries. These boundaries in conjunction with charts of radial magnetic field can be used to calculate open magnetic fluxes. Direct comparison is made with potential magnetic extrapolations as well as a non-potential, magneto-frictional model. There is strong agreement both in the geometry of regions as well as associated magnetic fluxes. These data provide a unique opportunity to study the far side dynamics of coronal holes and open magnetic field evolution. Title: On the Modulation of the Solar Activity Cycles, and Hemispheric Asymmetry of Solar Magnetism during the Cycle 23/24 Minimum Authors: Leamon, Robert J.; McIntosh, Scott W. Bibcode: 2013enss.confE.140L Altcode: We address the origin of the 11-year (quasi-)periodicity of the sunspot cycle by tying it to the significant temporal overlap of activity bands belonging to the 22-year magnetic activity cycle. Using a systematic analysis of ubiquitous coronal brightpoints, and the prevalent magnetic scale on which they form, we are able to observationally demonstrate the entirety of the 22-year magnetic activity cycle. The phases of the sunspot cycle occur as landmarks in the interaction and evolution of the overlapping activity bands in each hemisphere. The unusual conditions of the recent Cycle 23/24 minimum can be directly attributed to the asymmetry (southern lag) between the two hemispheres of the sun. The work presented establishes significant observational constraints for models of the origins of solar magnetic activity and will, as a result, improve our understanding of the structure of the heliosphere and the modulation of our star's radiative and particulate output. We demonstrate how the Sun can descend into, and recover from, Grand Minima. Even if that is not where we're headed, we show why Cycle 25 is likely to be even weaker than Cycle 24. Title: Hemispheric Asymmetries of Solar Photospheric Magnetism: Radiative, Particulate, and Heliospheric Impacts Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; Gurman, Joseph B.; Olive, Jean-Philippe; Cirtain, Jonathan W.; Hathaway, David H.; Burkepile, Joan; Miesch, Mark; Markel, Robert S.; Sitongia, Leonard Bibcode: 2013ApJ...765..146M Altcode: 2013arXiv1302.1081M Among many other measurable quantities, the summer of 2009 saw a considerable low in the radiative output of the Sun that was temporally coincident with the largest cosmic-ray flux ever measured at 1 AU. Combining measurements and observations made by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) and Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) spacecraft we begin to explore the complexities of the descending phase of solar cycle 23, through the 2009 minimum into the ascending phase of solar cycle 24. A hemispheric asymmetry in magnetic activity is clearly observed and its evolution monitored and the resulting (prolonged) magnetic imbalance must have had a considerable impact on the structure and energetics of the heliosphere. While we cannot uniquely tie the variance and scale of the surface magnetism to the dwindling radiative and particulate output of the star, or the increased cosmic-ray flux through the 2009 minimum, the timing of the decline and rapid recovery in early 2010 would appear to inextricably link them. These observations support a picture where the Sun's hemispheres are significantly out of phase with each other. Studying historical sunspot records with this picture in mind shows that the northern hemisphere has been leading since the middle of the last century and that the hemispheric "dominance" has changed twice in the past 130 years. The observations presented give clear cause for concern, especially with respect to our present understanding of the processes that produce the surface magnetism in the (hidden) solar interior—hemispheric asymmetry is the normal state—the strong symmetry shown in 1996 was abnormal. Further, these observations show that the mechanism(s) which create and transport the magnetic flux are slowly changing with time and, it appears, with only loose coupling across the equator such that those asymmetries can persist for a considerable time. As the current asymmetry persists and the basal energetics of the system continue to dwindle we anticipate new radiative and particulate lows coupled with increased cosmic-ray fluxes heading into the next solar minimum. Title: Full Surface Automated Coronal Hole Detection and Characterization to Constrain Global Magnetic Field Models Authors: Lowder, Chris; Qiu, J.; Leamon, R.; Liu, Y. Bibcode: 2012AAS...22041106L Altcode: One of the primary mission goals of the Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) : Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUVI) is to provide full extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) coverage of the solar surface in conjunction with the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) : Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) or the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) : Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA). Now, five years after launch, sufficient orbital separation has occurred for this to come to fruition. Using EUV images from STEREO:EUVI in 195Å and SDO:AIA in 193Å, we can create full surface maps of coronal holes. Our method employs an intensity thresholding technique in conjunction with line-of-sight magnetic field measurements to automatically distinguish coronal holes from filament channels. This full surface coverage provides a unique opportunity to compare observed coronal holes with the predicted open magnetic field regions from both potential field models in addition to non-potential models. Our method is able to detect and characterize both long-term coronal hole structures, as well as shorter lived, transient coronal holes. Here, this method is described in detail, with comparisons drawn between observed coronal hole boundaries and open-field boundaries derived from models. In addition, quantities that are crucially dependent on these boundaries are considered, namely the open magnetic flux. Title: Solar Cycle Variations in the Elemental Abundance of Helium and Fractionation of Iron in the Fast Solar Wind - Indicators of an Evolving Energetic Release of Mass from the Lower Solar Atmosphere Authors: Kiefer, K. K.; Mcintosh, S. W.; Leamon, R. J.; Kasper, J. C.; Stevens, M. L. Bibcode: 2011AGUFMSH21B1915K Altcode: We present and discuss the strong correspondence between evolution of the emission length scale in the lower transition region and in situ measurements of the fast solar wind composition during this most recent solar minimum. We combine recent analyses demonstrating the variance in the (supergranular) network emission length scale measured by SOHO (and STEREO) with that of the Helium abundance (from WIND) and the degree of Iron fractionation in the solar wind (from the ACE and Ulysses spacecrafts). The net picture developing is one where a decrease in the Helium abundance and the degree of fractionation (approaching values expected of the photosphere) in the fast wind indicate a significant change in the process loading material into the fast solar wind during the recent solar minimum. This result is compounded by a study of the Helium abundance during the space age using the NASA OMNI database which shows a slowly decaying amount of Helium being driven into the heliosphere over the course of several solar cycles. Title: The highest cosmic ray fluxes ever recorded: What happened to the earth's deflector shield? Authors: Leamon, R. J.; Mcintosh, S. W.; Burkepile, J.; Sitongia, L.; Markel, R. S.; Gurman, J. B.; Olive, J. Bibcode: 2011AGUFMSH23D..08L Altcode: The summer of 2009 saw the largest cosmic ray flux ever measured at 1AU. Observed by neutron monitors this solar minimum flux was 6% larger than that of the last solar minimum in 1996, and 4% larger than the previous high of the space age. Clearly, something dramatically affected the cosmic ray "deflector shield" of the Earth this time around, but what was it? Using a combination of serendipitous observations made by the solid state recorder of the SOHO spacecraft, an analysis of SOHO/MDI magnetograms combined with SOHO/EIT and SDO/AIA coronal imaging, we deduce that a pronounced north-south asymmetry in the meridional circulation flow resulted in the evolution of the photospheric magnetic to a prolonged prevalence of the negative magnetic polarity in the equatorial region that were the root cause of the observed cosmic ray flux increase. The negative sign, weakness and low rigidity of the interplanetary magnetic field, driven by the excess of open magnetic flux resulting from the flow asymmetry in the solar interior, enabled more cosmic rays of the energy range measured at Earth to creep into our atmosphere than previously measured. Title: A Snapshot of the Sun Near Solar Minimum: The Whole Heliosphere Interval Authors: Thompson, Barbara J.; Gibson, Sarah E.; Schroeder, Peter C.; Webb, David F.; Arge, Charles N.; Bisi, Mario M.; de Toma, Giuliana; Emery, Barbara A.; Galvin, Antoinette B.; Haber, Deborah A.; Jackson, Bernard V.; Jensen, Elizabeth A.; Leamon, Robert J.; Lei, Jiuhou; Manoharan, Periasamy K.; Mays, M. Leila; McIntosh, Patrick S.; Petrie, Gordon J. D.; Plunkett, Simon P.; Qian, Liying; Riley, Peter; Suess, Steven T.; Tokumaru, Munetoshi; Welsch, Brian T.; Woods, Thomas N. Bibcode: 2011SoPh..274...29T Altcode: 2011SoPh..tmp..413T We present an overview of the data and models collected for the Whole Heliosphere Interval, an international campaign to study the three-dimensional solar-heliospheric-planetary connected system near solar minimum. The data and models correspond to solar Carrington Rotation 2068 (20 March - 16 April 2008) extending from below the solar photosphere, through interplanetary space, and down to Earth's mesosphere. Nearly 200 people participated in aspects of WHI studies, analyzing and interpreting data from nearly 100 instruments and models in order to elucidate the physics of fundamental heliophysical processes. The solar and inner heliospheric data showed structure consistent with the declining phase of the solar cycle. A closely spaced cluster of low-latitude active regions was responsible for an increased level of magnetic activity, while a highly warped current sheet dominated heliospheric structure. The geospace data revealed an unusually high level of activity, driven primarily by the periodic impingement of high-speed streams. The WHI studies traced the solar activity and structure into the heliosphere and geospace, and provided new insight into the nature of the interconnected heliophysical system near solar minimum. Title: The Whole Heliosphere Interval in the Context of a Long and Structured Solar Minimum: An Overview from Sun to Earth Authors: Gibson, S. E.; de Toma, G.; Emery, B.; Riley, P.; Zhao, L.; Elsworth, Y.; Leamon, R. J.; Lei, J.; McIntosh, S.; Mewaldt, R. A.; Thompson, B. J.; Webb, D. Bibcode: 2011SoPh..274....5G Altcode: 2011SoPh..tmp..427G Throughout months of extremely low solar activity during the recent extended solar-cycle minimum, structural evolution continued to be observed from the Sun through the solar wind and to the Earth. In 2008, the presence of long-lived and large low-latitude coronal holes meant that geospace was periodically impacted by high-speed streams, even though solar irradiance, activity, and interplanetary magnetic fields had reached levels as low as, or lower than, observed in past minima. This time period, which includes the first Whole Heliosphere Interval (WHI 1: Carrington Rotation (CR) 2068), illustrates the effects of fast solar-wind streams on the Earth in an otherwise quiet heliosphere. By the end of 2008, sunspots and solar irradiance had reached their lowest levels for this minimum (e.g., WHI 2: CR 2078), and continued solar magnetic-flux evolution had led to a flattening of the heliospheric current sheet and the decay of the low-latitude coronal holes and associated Earth-intersecting high-speed solar-wind streams. As the new solar cycle slowly began, solar-wind and geospace observables stayed low or continued to decline, reaching very low levels by June - July 2009. At this point (e.g., WHI 3: CR 2085) the Sun-Earth system, taken as a whole, was at its quietest. In this article we present an overview of observations that span the period 2008 - 2009, with highlighted discussion of CRs 2068, 2078, and 2085. We show side-by-side observables from the Sun's interior through its surface and atmosphere, through the solar wind and heliosphere and to the Earth's space environment and upper atmosphere, and reference detailed studies of these various regimes within this topical issue and elsewhere. Title: Solar Cycle Variations in the Elemental Abundance of Helium and Fractionation of Iron in the Fast Solar Wind: Indicators of an Evolving Energetic Release of Mass from the Lower Solar Atmosphere Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Kiefer, Kandace K.; Leamon, Robert J.; Kasper, Justin C.; Stevens, Michael L. Bibcode: 2011ApJ...740L..23M Altcode: 2011arXiv1109.1408M We present and discuss the strong correspondence between evolution of the emission length scale in the lower transition region and in situ measurements of the fast solar wind composition during the most recent solar minimum. We combine recent analyses demonstrating the variance in the (supergranular) network emission length scale measured by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (and STEREO) with that of the helium abundance (from Wind) and the degree of iron fractionation in the solar wind (from the Advanced Composition Explorer and Ulysses). The net picture developing is one where a decrease in the helium abundance and the degree of iron fractionation (approaching values expected of the photosphere) in the fast wind indicate a significant change in the process loading material into the fast solar wind during the recent solar minimum. This result is compounded by a study of the helium abundance during the space age using the NASA OMNI database, which shows a slowly decaying amount of helium being driven into the heliosphere over the course of several solar cycles. Title: A Decade of Solar Wind Dissipation Range Dynamics Authors: Smith, Charles William; Vasquez, Bernard J.; Stemkowski, Matthew R.; Stawarz, Joshua E.; Leamon, Robert J.; Matthaeus, William H.; Hamilton, Kathleen; Forman, Miriam A.; MacBride, Benjamin T. Bibcode: 2011shin.confE..99S Altcode: In light of recent suggestions that the so-called ion dissipation range for interplanetary magnetic fluctuations is, in fact, not representative of dissipation processes, but arises only due to dispersion effects associated with perpendicular Kinetic Alfven Waves (KAW), we review 13 years of study that points to a fundamentally different interpretation of the observations. We present evidence that thermal protons are heated from 0.3 to 100 AU by means that are in excellent agreement with the computed rate at which the inertial range transports energy to the ion dissipation scales. We discuss the role of the power spectrum and variance anisotropy in determining changes in the wave modes as energy passes from the inertial to the dissipation range. We review the single-spacecraft technique for determining the distribution of energy between parallel and perpendicular wave vectors and show how this distribution changes between inertial and dissipation scales. Moreover, we present direct evidence that the multi-dimensional autocorrelation function supports these conclusions. Lastly, we will review the basic energy budget analysis that arises when one attempts to balance cascade with dissipation processes that are separately polarization-dependent, such as cyclotron damping, and polarization-independent. We conclude that energy dissipation and ion heating occurs via a wide range of dynamical processes at scales comparable to the ion inertial scale. We do not preclude there being a secondary inertial range at electron scales, but we do argue that the bulk of the inertial range cascade energy dissipates at ion scales. Title: Observing Evolution in the Supergranular Network Length Scale During Periods of Low Solar Activity Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; Hock, Rachel A.; Rast, Mark P.; Ulrich, Roger K. Bibcode: 2011ApJ...730L...3M Altcode: 2011arXiv1102.0303M We present the initial results of an observational study into the variation of the dominant length scale of quiet solar emission: supergranulation. The distribution of magnetic elements in the lanes that from the network affects, and reflects, the radiative energy in the plasma of the upper solar chromosphere and transition region at the magnetic network boundaries forming as a result of the relentless interaction of magnetic fields and convective motions of the Suns' interior. We demonstrate that a net difference of ~0.5 Mm in the supergranular emission length scale occurs when comparing observation cycle 22/23 and cycle 23/24 minima. This variation in scale is reproduced in the data sets of multiple space- and ground-based instruments and using different diagnostic measures. By means of extension, we consider the variation of the supergranular length scale over multiple solar minima by analyzing a subset of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory Ca II K image record. The observations and analysis presented provide a tantalizing look at solar activity in the absence of large-scale flux emergence, offering insight into times of "extreme" solar minimum and general behavior such as the phasing and cross-dependence of different components of the spectral irradiance. Given that the modulation of the supergranular scale imprints itself in variations of the Suns' spectral irradiance, as well as in the mass and energy transport into the entire outer atmosphere, this preliminary investigation is an important step in understanding the impact of the quiet Sun on the heliospheric system. Title: The Spectroscopic Footprint of the Fast Solar Wind Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; De Pontieu, Bart Bibcode: 2011ApJ...727....7M Altcode: 2010arXiv1011.3066M We analyze a large, complex equatorial coronal hole (ECH) and its immediate surroundings with a focus on the roots of the fast solar wind. We start by demonstrating that our ECH is indeed a source of the fast solar wind at 1 AU by examining in situ plasma measurements in conjunction with recently developed measures of magnetic conditions of the photosphere, inner heliosphere, and the mapping of the solar wind source region. We focus the bulk of our analysis on interpreting the thermal and spatial dependence of the non-thermal line widths in the ECH as measured by SOHO/SUMER by placing the measurements in context with recent studies of ubiquitous Alfvén waves in the solar atmosphere and line profile asymmetries (indicative of episodic heating and mass loading of the coronal plasma) that originate in the strong, unipolar magnetic flux concentrations that comprise the supergranular network. The results presented in this paper are consistent with a picture where a significant portion of the energy responsible for the transport of heated mass into the fast solar wind is provided by episodically occurring small-scale events (likely driven by magnetic reconnection) in the upper chromosphere and transition region of the strong magnetic flux regions that comprise the supergranular network. Title: The Highest Cosmic Ray Fluxes Ever Recorded: What Happened to the Earth's Deflector Shield? Authors: Burkepile, J.; McIntosh, S. W.; Gurman, J. B.; Leamon, R. J. Bibcode: 2010AGUFMSH51B1676B Altcode: The summer of 2009 saw the largest cosmic ray flux ever measured at Earth. Cosmic ray intensities in the 270-450 MeV/nucleon range were nearly 20% larger than anything previously recorded. Clearly, something dramatically affected the cosmic ray 'deflector shield' of the Earth during the most recent solar activity minimum. We explore the cause of this marked increase by examining properties of the global solar magnetic field and conditions in the solar wind during the previous solar minimum and compare these to previous solar cycles using in-situ and remote sensing observations. Title: The Impact of New EUV Diagnostics on CME-Related Kinematics Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; De Pontieu, Bart; Leamon, Robert J. Bibcode: 2010SoPh..265....5M Altcode: 2010SoPh..tmp...74M; 2010arXiv1001.2022M We present the application of novel diagnostics to the spectroscopic observation of a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) on disk by the Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer (EIS) on the Hinode spacecraft. We apply a recently developed line profile asymmetry analysis to the spectroscopic observation of NOAA AR 10930 on 14 - 15 December 2006 to three raster observations before and during the eruption of a 1000 km s−1 halo CME. We see the impact that the observer's line-of-sight and magnetic field geometry have on the diagnostics used. Further, and more importantly, we identify the on-disk signature of a high-speed outflow behind the CME in the dimming region arising as a result of the eruption. Supported by recent coronal observations of the STEREO spacecraft, we speculate about the momentum flux resulting from this outflow as a secondary momentum source to the CME. The results presented highlight the importance of spectroscopic measurements in relation to CME kinematics, and the need for full-disk synoptic spectroscopic observations of the coronal and chromospheric plasmas to capture the signature of such explosive energy release as a way of providing better constraints of CME propagation times to L1, or any other point of interest in the heliosphere. Title: STEREO observations of quasi-periodically driven high velocity outflows in polar plumes Authors: McIntosh, S. W.; Innes, D. E.; de Pontieu, B.; Leamon, R. J. Bibcode: 2010A&A...510L...2M Altcode: 2010arXiv1001.3377M Context. Plumes are one of the most ubiquitous features seen at the limb in polar coronal holes and are considered to be a source of high density plasma streams to the fast solar wind.