Author name code: rast ADS astronomy entries on 2022-09-14 author:"Rast, Mark P." ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Title: Exploring the cradle of the Solar Wind with the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) Authors: Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2022cosp...44.1318R Altcode: The National Science Foundation's Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) is in its operations-commissioning phase, a transition from construction to operations during which there will be a gradual ramping up of operational and data center capabilities. This phase of activity will included a series observing-proposal calls with instrument configurations of increasing complexity. The first of these calls has closed and proposals have been selected. Observations are ongoing. Here we will describe the capabilities of the current and future operations-commissioning phase configurations, and the final capabilities of the fully commissioned facility. In particular, we will focus on how the DKIST will contribute to studies of the inner solar corona. The DKIST's unique high spatial and temporal resolution high-precision spectropolarimetric capabilities will allow detailed simultaneous measurements at multiple heights in the solar atmosphere, unraveling its intricate connectivity and clarifying processes that span the solar atmosphere. Title: Identifying Acoustic Wave Sources on the Sun. I. Two-dimensional Waves in a Simulated Photosphere Authors: Bahauddin, Shah Mohammad; Rast, Mark Peter Bibcode: 2021ApJ...915...36B Altcode: 2021arXiv210110465B The solar acoustic oscillations are likely stochastically excited by convective dynamics in the solar photosphere, though few direct observations of individual source events have been made and their detailed characteristics are still unknown. Wave source identification requires measurements that can reliably discriminate the local wave signal from the background convective motions and resonant modal power. This is quite challenging as these noise contributions have amplitudes several orders of magnitude greater than the sources and the propagating wave fields they induce. In this paper, we employ a high-temporal-frequency filter to identify sites of acoustic emission in a radiative magnetohydrodynamic simulation. The properties of the filter were determined from a convolutional neural network trained to identify the two-dimensional acoustic Green's function response of the atmosphere, but once defined, it can be directly applied to an image time series to extract the signal of local wave excitation, bypassing the need for the original neural network. Using the filter developed, we have uncovered previously unknown properties of the acoustic emission process. In the simulation, acoustic events are found to be clustered at mesogranular scales, with peak emission quite deep, about 500 km below the photosphere, and sites of very strong emission can result from the interaction of two supersonic downflows that merge at that depth. We suggest that the method developed, when applied to high-resolution high-cadence observations, such as those forthcoming with the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope, will have important applications in chromospheric wave studies and may lead to new investigations in high-resolution local helioseismology. Title: The National Science Foundation's Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope — Status Update Authors: Rimmele, T.; Woeger, F.; Tritschler, A.; Casini, R.; de Wijn, A.; Fehlmann, A.; Harrington, D.; Jaeggli, S.; Anan, T.; Beck, C.; Cauzzi, G.; Schad, T.; Criscuoli, S.; Davey, A.; Lin, H.; Kuhn, J.; Rast, M.; Goode, P.; Knoelker, M.; Rosner, R.; von der Luehe, O.; Mathioudakis, M.; Dkist Team Bibcode: 2021AAS...23810601R Altcode: The National Science Foundation's 4m Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) on Haleakala, Maui is now the largest solar telescope in the world. DKIST's superb resolution and polarimetric sensitivity will enable astronomers to unravel many of the mysteries the Sun presents, including the origin of solar magnetism, the mechanisms of coronal heating and drivers of flares and coronal mass ejections. Five instruments, four of which provide highly sensitive measurements of solar magnetic fields, including the illusive magnetic field of the faint solar corona. The DKIST instruments will produce large and complex data sets, which will be distributed through the NSO/DKIST Data Center. DKIST has achieved first engineering solar light in December of 2019. Due to COVID the start of the operations commissioning phase is delayed and is now expected for fall of 2021. We present a status update for the construction effort and progress with the operations commissioning phase. Title: CHIME's hyperspectral imaging spectrometer design result from phase A/B1 Authors: Buschkamp, P.; Sang, B.; Peacocke, P.; Pieraccini, S.; Geiss, M. J.; Roth, C.; Moreau, V.; Borguet, B.; Maresi, L.; Rast, M.; Nieke, J. Bibcode: 2021SPIE11852E..2KB Altcode: CHIME, the Copernicus Hyperspectral Imaging Mission for the Environment, is one of the six High Priority Candidate Missions (HPCM) of the evolution in the Copernicus Space Component (CSC) foreseen in the mid-2020s that is proposed for further analysis. In this paper we summarize the results as retrieved by OHB (D) as part of the Phase A/B1. The contract was kicked off in 2018 and concluded in 2020 after finalisation of the Pre-development activities. The proposed instrument is a hyperspectral imager instrument with reflective telescope and grating-based spectrometer. The selected orbit is in the range of 625 ± 30 km, LTDN 10:45 - 11:15 am with a repeat cycle of 20 to 25 days for a single satellite and 10-12.5 days revisit for 2 satellites. The payload of each satellite records at a Spatial Sampling Distance (SSD) of 30m the full spectral range from 400 to 2500nm at a Spectral Sampling interval < 10nm with Low Keystone/Smile. On the front end a high performance TMA with wide-band coated optics collects the light from ground and feeds it to a highly linear almost distortion free spectrometer assembly attaining very good spectral stability. All units are integrated in an optical bench structure that offers excellent AIT access and provides a highly stable LOS. The electro-optical backend contains low-noise cold MCT detectors creating margin in the predicted NEDL performance. The instrument can be calibrated via on-board devices or using reference targets outside the spacecraft. We present the functional decomposition and the physical instrument architecture: the optical design and opto-mechanical layout, the electro-optical imaging chain ant thermal control system. Title: Identifying Acoustic Wave Sources In A Simulated Solar Photosphere Authors: Bahauddin, S.; Rast, M. Bibcode: 2021AAS...23820507B Altcode: The solar acoustic oscillations are likely stochastically excited by convective dynamics in the solar photosphere, though few direct observations of individual source events have been made and their detailed characteristics are still unknown. Wave source identification requires measurements that can reliably discriminate the local wave signal from the background convective motions and resonant modal power. This is quite challenging as these 'noise' contributions have amplitudes several orders of magnitude greater than the sources and the propagating wave fields they induce. In this paper, we report on a new robust method for the unambiguous identification of acoustic source sites in the photosphere of a MPS/University of Chicago Radiative MHD (MURaM) magnetohydrodynamic simulation of the upper solar convection zone. The method was developed by first utilizing a deep learning algorithm to reliably identify the weak residual high-frequency signature of local acoustic sources, the two-dimensional acoustic Green's function response of the atmosphere, in Doppler velocity maps and then deciphering what underlies its success. We have diagnosed what the learning algorithm is detecting, mimicked the filter it is applying, and applied the filter directly to the simulated photospheric time series, bypassing the dependence on deep-learning and allowing direct visualization of the local wave pulses that propagate outward from the acoustic source sites. To be effective, the acoustic-source filter thus derived requires high cadence (< 3 seconds) and high spatial resolution (< 50 km) timeseries. Fortuitously, the observational capabilities required to apply the filter to real solar data are just now becoming available with the commissioning of the National Science Foundation's Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST). Using the filter developed, we have uncovered previously unknown properties of the acoustic emission process. In the simulation, acoustic events are found to be clustered at mesogranular scales, with peak emission quite deep, about 500 km below the photosphere, and sites of very strong emission can result from the interaction of two supersonic downflows that merge at that depth. We suggest that the method developed, when applied to high-resolution high-cadence observations, such as those forthcoming with Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST), will have important applications in chromospheric wave-studies and may lead to new investigations in high-resolution local-helioseismology. Title: Critical Science Plan for the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) Authors: Rast, Mark P.; Bello González, Nazaret; Bellot Rubio, Luis; Cao, Wenda; Cauzzi, Gianna; Deluca, Edward; de Pontieu, Bart; Fletcher, Lyndsay; Gibson, Sarah E.; Judge, Philip G.; Katsukawa, Yukio; Kazachenko, Maria D.; Khomenko, Elena; Landi, Enrico; Martínez Pillet, Valentín; Petrie, Gordon J. D.; Qiu, Jiong; Rachmeler, Laurel A.; Rempel, Matthias; Schmidt, Wolfgang; Scullion, Eamon; Sun, Xudong; Welsch, Brian T.; Andretta, Vincenzo; Antolin, Patrick; Ayres, Thomas R.; Balasubramaniam, K. S.; Ballai, Istvan; Berger, Thomas E.; Bradshaw, Stephen J.; Campbell, Ryan J.; Carlsson, Mats; Casini, Roberto; Centeno, Rebecca; Cranmer, Steven R.; Criscuoli, Serena; Deforest, Craig; Deng, Yuanyong; Erdélyi, Robertus; Fedun, Viktor; Fischer, Catherine E.; González Manrique, Sergio J.; Hahn, Michael; Harra, Louise; Henriques, Vasco M. J.; Hurlburt, Neal E.; Jaeggli, Sarah; Jafarzadeh, Shahin; Jain, Rekha; Jefferies, Stuart M.; Keys, Peter H.; Kowalski, Adam F.; Kuckein, Christoph; Kuhn, Jeffrey R.; Kuridze, David; Liu, Jiajia; Liu, Wei; Longcope, Dana; Mathioudakis, Mihalis; McAteer, R. T. James; McIntosh, Scott W.; McKenzie, David E.; Miralles, Mari Paz; Morton, Richard J.; Muglach, Karin; Nelson, Chris J.; Panesar, Navdeep K.; Parenti, Susanna; Parnell, Clare E.; Poduval, Bala; Reardon, Kevin P.; Reep, Jeffrey W.; Schad, Thomas A.; Schmit, Donald; Sharma, Rahul; Socas-Navarro, Hector; Srivastava, Abhishek K.; Sterling, Alphonse C.; Suematsu, Yoshinori; Tarr, Lucas A.; Tiwari, Sanjiv; Tritschler, Alexandra; Verth, Gary; Vourlidas, Angelos; Wang, Haimin; Wang, Yi-Ming; NSO and DKIST Project; DKIST Instrument Scientists; DKIST Science Working Group; DKIST Critical Science Plan Community Bibcode: 2021SoPh..296...70R Altcode: 2020arXiv200808203R The National Science Foundation's Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) will revolutionize our ability to measure, understand, and model the basic physical processes that control the structure and dynamics of the Sun and its atmosphere. The first-light DKIST images, released publicly on 29 January 2020, only hint at the extraordinary capabilities that will accompany full commissioning of the five facility instruments. With this Critical Science Plan (CSP) we attempt to anticipate some of what those capabilities will enable, providing a snapshot of some of the scientific pursuits that the DKIST hopes to engage as start-of-operations nears. The work builds on the combined contributions of the DKIST Science Working Group (SWG) and CSP Community members, who generously shared their experiences, plans, knowledge, and dreams. Discussion is primarily focused on those issues to which DKIST will uniquely contribute. Title: Deciphering Solar Convection Authors: Rast, Mark Peter Bibcode: 2020ASSP...57..149R Altcode: Numerical modeling of solar and stellar convection, and by extension modeling of solar and stellar dynamos faces a surprising challenge. No hydrodynamic, magnetohydrodynamic, or radiative magnetohydrodynamic model of solar convection, if conducted in a sufficiently deep domain, achieves the velocity power spectrum implied by observations of the Sun. The horizontal velocity at low wavenumbers in the upper layers of the simulation domains is much too high, monotonically increasing to low wavenumber rather than rolling over at supergranular scales, as on the Sun. This reflects convective amplitudes at depth that are similarly too large, and results in equatorial differential rotation profiles in simulations of rotating spherical shells of opposite sign to those observed. The problem worsens in models with decreasing diffusivities, as the amplitudes of the convective motions increase. This has come to be known as the convective conundrum. Solving it is critical to understanding dynamo behavior on stars, which in turn is central to the assessment of the structure of the asterospheres in which their planetary companions are embedded. This paper examines what is known about solar convection in light of one possible underlying cause of the convective conundrum, that the deep interior of the Sun is even more nearly adiabatically stratified than our models suggest or can achieve. Correcting this in models will likely be difficult, but we point in some potentially fruitful directions. Title: The Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope - Observatory Overview Authors: Rimmele, Thomas R.; Warner, Mark; Keil, Stephen L.; Goode, Philip R.; Knölker, Michael; Kuhn, Jeffrey R.; Rosner, Robert R.; McMullin, Joseph P.; Casini, Roberto; Lin, Haosheng; Wöger, Friedrich; von der Lühe, Oskar; Tritschler, Alexandra; Davey, Alisdair; de Wijn, Alfred; Elmore, David F.; Fehlmann, André; Harrington, David M.; Jaeggli, Sarah A.; Rast, Mark P.; Schad, Thomas A.; Schmidt, Wolfgang; Mathioudakis, Mihalis; Mickey, Donald L.; Anan, Tetsu; Beck, Christian; Marshall, Heather K.; Jeffers, Paul F.; Oschmann, Jacobus M.; Beard, Andrew; Berst, David C.; Cowan, Bruce A.; Craig, Simon C.; Cross, Eric; Cummings, Bryan K.; Donnelly, Colleen; de Vanssay, Jean-Benoit; Eigenbrot, Arthur D.; Ferayorni, Andrew; Foster, Christopher; Galapon, Chriselle Ann; Gedrites, Christopher; Gonzales, Kerry; Goodrich, Bret D.; Gregory, Brian S.; Guzman, Stephanie S.; Guzzo, Stephen; Hegwer, Steve; Hubbard, Robert P.; Hubbard, John R.; Johansson, Erik M.; Johnson, Luke C.; Liang, Chen; Liang, Mary; McQuillen, Isaac; Mayer, Christopher; Newman, Karl; Onodera, Brialyn; Phelps, LeEllen; Puentes, Myles M.; Richards, Christopher; Rimmele, Lukas M.; Sekulic, Predrag; Shimko, Stephan R.; Simison, Brett E.; Smith, Brett; Starman, Erik; Sueoka, Stacey R.; Summers, Richard T.; Szabo, Aimee; Szabo, Louis; Wampler, Stephen B.; Williams, Timothy R.; White, Charles Bibcode: 2020SoPh..295..172R Altcode: We present an overview of the National Science Foundation's Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST), its instruments, and support facilities. The 4 m aperture DKIST provides the highest-resolution observations of the Sun ever achieved. The large aperture of DKIST combined with state-of-the-art instrumentation provide the sensitivity to measure the vector magnetic field in the chromosphere and in the faint corona, i.e. for the first time with DKIST we will be able to measure and study the most important free-energy source in the outer solar atmosphere - the coronal magnetic field. Over its operational lifetime DKIST will advance our knowledge of fundamental astronomical processes, including highly dynamic solar eruptions that are at the source of space-weather events that impact our technological society. Design and construction of DKIST took over two decades. DKIST implements a fast (f/2), off-axis Gregorian optical design. The maximum available field-of-view is 5 arcmin. A complex thermal-control system was implemented in order to remove at prime focus the majority of the 13 kW collected by the primary mirror and to keep optical surfaces and structures at ambient temperature, thus avoiding self-induced local seeing. A high-order adaptive-optics system with 1600 actuators corrects atmospheric seeing enabling diffraction limited imaging and spectroscopy. Five instruments, four of which are polarimeters, provide powerful diagnostic capability over a broad wavelength range covering the visible, near-infrared, and mid-infrared spectrum. New polarization-calibration strategies were developed to achieve the stringent polarization accuracy requirement of 5×10−4. Instruments can be combined and operated simultaneously in order to obtain a maximum of observational information. Observing time on DKIST is allocated through an open, merit-based proposal process. DKIST will be operated primarily in "service mode" and is expected to on average produce 3 PB of raw data per year. A newly developed data center located at the NSO Headquarters in Boulder will initially serve fully calibrated data to the international users community. Higher-level data products, such as physical parameters obtained from inversions of spectro-polarimetric data will be added as resources allow. Title: Supergranulation on the Sun and stars: A simple model for its length scale Authors: Rast, Mark; Trampedach, Regner Bibcode: 2019AAS...23412205R Altcode: Turbulent convection in stellar envelopes is critical to heat transport and dynamo activity. Modeling it well it has proven surprisingly difficult, and recent solar and stellar observations have raised questions about our understanding of the dynamics of both the deep solar convection and the mean structure of the upper layers of convective stellar envelopes. In particular, the amplitude of low wavenumber convective motions in both local area radiative magnetohydrodynamic and global spherical shell magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the Sun appear to be too high. In global simulations this results in weaker than needed rotational constraint of the motions and consequent non solar-like differential rotation profiles. In deep local area simulations it yields strong horizontal flows in the photosphere on scales much larger than the observed supergranulation, leaving the origin of the solar supergranular scale enigmatic. The problems are not confined to the Sun. Models of stellar convection show too sharp a transition to the interior adiabatic gradient, leading to a mismatch between computed and observed oscillation frequencies. We suggest that there is a common solution to these problems: convective motions in stellar envelopes are even more nonlocal than numerical models suggest. Small scale photospherically driven motions dominate convective transport even at depth, descending through a very nearly adiabatic interior (more nearly adiabatic in the mean than numerical models achieve). To test this, we develop a simple model that reproduces the mean thermodynamic stratification of three dimensional hydrodynamic stellar envelope models. It can recover the mean thermodynmaic states of the full models knowing only the filling factor and entropy fluctuations of the granular downflows in their photospheres. The supergranular scale of convection is then determined by the depth to which the presence of granular downflows alters the otherwise adiabatically stratified background. The supergranular scale of convection is then determined by the depth to which the presence of granular downflows alters the otherwise adiabatically stratified background. Title: Helioseismic Inversion method applied to Stokes data Authors: Agrawal, Piyush; Rast, Mark; Ruiz Cobo, Basilio Bibcode: 2019shin.confE.132A Altcode: As light travels through an atmosphere, it interacts with the medium through absorption, emission and scattering processes. Given a light spectra, inferring the physical properties (for example T, Pg, velocity) of the atmosphere it traversed, is called an inversion problem. To infer the unknown atmosphere, one usually starts with a depth-dependent guess atmospheric model and perturbs it until the synthesized spectra through this model match the observed spectra. The desired perturbations are computed using response functions which is a measure of the sensitivity of spectra to changes in atmospheric variables. Due to the ill-posed nature of inverse problems, the solutions are non-unique and highly oscillatory. Thus, nodes are used to obtain a smooth solution. These nodes are a small number of evenly spaced depth locations where the perturbations are calculated. Perturbations at remaining depth points are interpolated using these nodal values. The final model has a depth resolution set by the number of nodes, independent of the information content of the spectra. The solution thus obtained, most likely, does not have the optimal depth resolution.
The OLA inversion method used in helioseismology does not suffer from the limited resolution issues with nodes. In this method, the response functions are linearly combined in order to obtain a highly localized, average response kernel at a given target depth. The width of the kernel corresponds to the vertical resolution at that depth, and its limit mostly depends on the amount of spectral information. The inverted physical parameter then corresponds to this kernel averaged quantity. The process is repeated for all depths and a smooth inverted solution is obtained. In this work, we aim to apply the OLA method to spectroscopic data. To facilitate this, we used SIR code to synthesize spectra through the 1D smooth temperature profiles from MURaM. To this 1D model, we added a Gaussian perturbation. The goal of the project is how well can we invert for this perturbed atmosphere using OLA method and how do the results compare to the SIR inversion code. Title: Doppler Events in the Solar Photosphere: The Coincident Superposition of Fast Granular Flows and p-Mode Coherence Patches Authors: McClure, R. Lee; Rast, Mark P.; Martínez Pillet, Valentin Bibcode: 2019SoPh..294...18M Altcode: 2018arXiv181108944M Observations of the solar photosphere show spatially compact large-amplitude Doppler velocity events with short lifetimes. In data from the Imaging Magnetograph eXperiment (IMaX) on the first flight of the SUNRISE balloon in 2009, events with velocities in excess of 4σ from the mean can be identified in both intergranular downflow lanes and granular upflows. We show that the statistics of such events are consistent with the random superposition of strong convective flows and p-mode coherence patches. Such coincident superposition complicates the identification of acoustic wave sources in the solar photosphere, and may be important in the interpretation of spectral line profiles formed in solar photosphere. Title: The Solar Photospheric Continuum Brightness as a Function of Mean Magnetic Flux Density. I. The Role of the Magnetic Structure Size Distribution Authors: Peck, C. L.; Rast, M. P.; Criscuoli, S.; Rempel, M. Bibcode: 2019ApJ...870...89P Altcode: Solar irradiance models indicate that irradiance variations are dominated by changes in the disk-coverage of magnetic structures, whose brightness is thought to be determined by their size and average magnetic flux density. Recent results suggest that the brightness of small-scale magnetic structures also depends on the mean magnetic flux of the extended region surrounding them due to reduced convective vigor. Low spatial resolution, however, may limit the ability to distinguish the role of magnetic structure size distributions from that of the mean magnetic flux. Using high-resolution 3D MHD simulations, we investigate the brightness of magnetic structures embedded in regions characterized by different mean magnetic flux. In agreement with previous results, we find reduced brightness with increasing mean magnetic flux when comparing the pixel-by-pixel continuum brightness versus magnetic field strength. Evaluating equivalently sized magnetic structures, however, we find no significant dependence of the magnetic structure brightness on the mean magnetic flux of the region in which they are embedded. Rather, we find that simulations with larger mean magnetic flux generate larger, and therefore darker, magnetic structures whose contributions result in an overall darkening of the region. The differences in magnetic structure size distributions alone can explain the reduced brightness of regions with larger mean magnetic flux. This implies that, for the range of mean magnetic flux of the simulations, convective suppression plays at most a secondary role in determining radiative output of magnetized regions. Quantifying the role of convective transport over a wider range of mean magnetic flux is the subject of the second paper in this series. Title: The Critical Science Plan for DKIST Authors: Rast, M.; Cauzzi, G.; Martinez Pillet, V. Bibcode: 2019NCimC..42....7R Altcode: The 4-meter Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope is nearing completion on Haleakala, Maui, with first light expected in 2020. In preparation for early science, the National Solar Observatory is reaching out to the solar community in order to define the critical science goals for the first two years of DKIST operations. The overall aim of this "Critical Science Plan" is to be ready, by start of operations, to execute a set of observations that take full advantage of the DKIST capabilities to address critical compelling science. Title: Status of the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope: unraveling the mysteries the Sun. Authors: Rimmele, Thomas R.; Martinez Pillet, Valentin; Goode, Philip R.; Knoelker, Michael; Kuhn, Jeffrey Richard; Rosner, Robert; Casini, Roberto; Lin, Haosheng; von der Luehe, Oskar; Woeger, Friedrich; Tritschler, Alexandra; Fehlmann, Andre; Jaeggli, Sarah A.; Schmidt, Wolfgang; De Wijn, Alfred; Rast, Mark; Harrington, David M.; Sueoka, Stacey R.; Beck, Christian; Schad, Thomas A.; Warner, Mark; McMullin, Joseph P.; Berukoff, Steven J.; Mathioudakis, Mihalis; DKIST Team Bibcode: 2018AAS...23231601R Altcode: The 4m Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) currently under construction on Haleakala, Maui will be the world’s largest solar telescope. Designed to meet the needs of critical high resolution and high sensitivity spectral and polarimetric observations of the sun, this facility will perform key observations of our nearest star that matters most to humankind. DKIST’s superb resolution and sensitivity will enable astronomers to address many of the fundamental problems in solar and stellar astrophysics, including the origin of stellar magnetism, the mechanisms of coronal heating and drivers of the solar wind, flares, coronal mass ejections and variability in solar and stellar output. DKIST will also address basic research aspects of Space Weather and help improve predictive capabilities. In combination with synoptic observations and theoretical modeling DKIST will unravel the many remaining mysteries of the Sun.The construction of DKIST is progressing on schedule with 80% of the facility complete. Operations are scheduled to begin early 2020. DKIST will replace the NSO facilities on Kitt Peak and Sac Peak with a national facility with worldwide unique capabilities. The design allows DKIST to operate as a coronagraph. Taking advantage of its large aperture and infrared polarimeters DKIST will be capable to routinely measure the currently illusive coronal magnetic fields. The state-of-the-art adaptive optics system provides diffraction limited imaging and the ability to resolve features approximately 20 km on the Sun. Achieving this resolution is critical for the ability to observe magnetic structures at their intrinsic, fundamental scales. Five instruments will be available at the start of operations, four of which will provide highly sensitive measurements of solar magnetic fields throughout the solar atmosphere - from the photosphere to the corona. The data from these instruments will be distributed to the world wide community via the NSO/DKIST data center located in Boulder. We present examples of science objectives and provide an overview of the facility and project status, including the ongoing efforts of the community to develop the critical science plan for the first 2-3 years of operations. Title: Transport of Internetwork Magnetic Flux Elements in the Solar Photosphere : Signatures of Large-Scale Flows and their Effect on Transport Statistics Authors: Agrawal, Piyush; Rast, Mark; Gosic, Milan; Rempel, Matthias; Bellot Rubio, Luis Bibcode: 2018tess.conf21704A Altcode: The motions of small-scale magnetic <span class="s1" flux elements in the solar photosphere can provide some measure of the Lagrangian properties of the convective <span class="s1" flow. Measurements of these motions have been critical in estimating the turbulent diffusion coef<span class="s1" ficient in <span class="s1" flux-transport dynamo models and in determining the Alfvén wave excitation spectrum for coronal heating models. We examine the motions of internetwork <span class="s1" flux elements in Hinode<span class="s1" /Narrowband Filter Imager magnetograms and study the scaling of their mean squared displacement and the shape of their displacement probability distribution as a function of time. We <span class="s1" find that the mean squared displacement scales super-diffusively with a slope of about 1.48. Super-diffusive scaling has been observed in other studies for temporal increments as small as 5 s, increments over which ballistic scaling would be expected. Using high-cadence MURaM simulations, we show that the observed super-diffusive scaling at short increments is a consequence of random changes in barycenter positions due to <span class="s1" flux evolution. We also <span class="s1" find that for long temporal increments, beyond granular lifetimes, the observed displacement distribution deviates from that expected for a diffusive process, evolving from Rayleigh to Gaussian. This change in distribution can be modeled analytically by accounting for supergranular advection along with granular motions. These results complicate the interpretation of magnetic element motions as strictly advective or diffusive on short and long timescales and suggest that measurements of magnetic element motions must be used with caution in turbulent diffusion or wave excitation models. We propose that passive tracer motions in measured photospheric <span class="s1" flows may yield more robust transport statistics. Title: Transport of Internetwork Magnetic Flux Elements in the Solar Photosphere Authors: Agrawal, Piyush; Rast, Mark P.; Gošić, Milan; Bellot Rubio, Luis R.; Rempel, Matthias Bibcode: 2018ApJ...854..118A Altcode: 2017arXiv171101290A The motions of small-scale magnetic flux elements in the solar photosphere can provide some measure of the Lagrangian properties of the convective flow. Measurements of these motions have been critical in estimating the turbulent diffusion coefficient in flux-transport dynamo models and in determining the Alfvén wave excitation spectrum for coronal heating models. We examine the motions of internetwork flux elements in Hinode/Narrowband Filter Imager magnetograms and study the scaling of their mean squared displacement and the shape of their displacement probability distribution as a function of time. We find that the mean squared displacement scales super-diffusively with a slope of about 1.48. Super-diffusive scaling has been observed in other studies for temporal increments as small as 5 s, increments over which ballistic scaling would be expected. Using high-cadence MURaM simulations, we show that the observed super-diffusive scaling at short increments is a consequence of random changes in barycenter positions due to flux evolution. We also find that for long temporal increments, beyond granular lifetimes, the observed displacement distribution deviates from that expected for a diffusive process, evolving from Rayleigh to Gaussian. This change in distribution can be modeled analytically by accounting for supergranular advection along with granular motions. These results complicate the interpretation of magnetic element motions as strictly advective or diffusive on short and long timescales and suggest that measurements of magnetic element motions must be used with caution in turbulent diffusion or wave excitation models. We propose that passive tracer motions in measured photospheric flows may yield more robust transport statistics. Title: An Assessment of and Solution to the Intensity Diffusion Error Intrinsic to Short-characteristic Radiative Transfer Methods Authors: Peck, C. L.; Criscuoli, S.; Rast, M. P. Bibcode: 2017ApJ...850....9P Altcode: 2017arXiv170809362P Radiative transfer coupled with highly realistic simulations of the solar atmosphere is routinely used to infer the physical properties underlying solar observations. Due to its computational efficiency, the method of short-characteristics is often employed, despite it introducing numerical diffusion as an interpolation artifact. In this paper, we quantify the effect of the numerical diffusion on the spatial resolution of synthesized emergent intensity images, and derive a closed form analytical model of the diffusive error made as a function of viewing angle when using linear interpolation. We demonstrate that the consequent image degradation adversely affects the comparison between simulated data and observations away from disk center, unless the simulations are computed at much higher intrinsic resolutions than the observations. We also show that the diffusive error is readily avoided by interpolating the simulation solution on a viewing angle aligned grid prior to computing the radiative transfer. Doing this will be critical for comparisons with observations using the upcoming large aperture telescopes—the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope and the European Solar Telescope. Title: The amplitude of the deep solar convection and the origin of the solar supergranulation Authors: Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2017usc..confE...1R Altcode: Recent observations and models have raised questions about our understanding of the dynamics of the deep solar convection. In particular, the amplitude of low wavenumber convective motions appears to be too high in both local area radiative magnetohydrodynamic and global spherical shell magnetohydrodynamic simulations. In global simulations this results in weaker than needed rotational constraints and consequent non solar-like differential rotation profiles. In deep local area simulations it yields strong horizontal flows in the photosphere on scales much larger than the observed supergranulation. We have undertaken numerical studies that suggest that solution to this problem is closely related to the long standing question of the origin of the solar supergranulation. Two possibilities have emerged. One suggests that small scale photospherically driven motions dominate convecive transport even at depth, descending through a very nearly adiabatic interior (more more nearly adiabatic than current convection models achieve). Convection of this form can meet Rossby number constraints set by global scale motions and implies that the solar supergranulation is the largest buoyantly driven scale of motion in the Sun. The other possibility is that large scale convection driven deeep in the Sun dynamically couples to the near surface shear layer, perhaps as its origin. In this case supergranulation would be the largest non-coupled convective mode, or only weakly coupled and thus potentially explaining the observed excess power in the prograde direction. Recent helioseismic results lend some support to this. We examind both of these possibilities using carefully designed numerical experiments, and weigh thier plausibilities in light of recent observations. Title: Assessing the Impact of Small-Scale Magnetic Morphology on Solar Variability Authors: Peck, Courtney; Rast, Mark; Criscuoli, Serena Bibcode: 2017SPD....48.0503P Altcode: Spectral solar irradiance (SSI), the radiant energy flux per wavelength of the Sun received at Earth, is an important driver of chemical reactions in the Earth’s atmosphere. Accurate measurements of SSI are therefore necessary as an input for global climate models. While models and observations of the spectrally-integrated total solar irradiance (TSI) variations agree within ∼ 95%, they can disagree on the sign and magnitude of the SSI variations. In this work, we examine the contribution of currently-unresolved small-scale magnetic structures to SSI variations in the photosphere. We examine the emergent spectra of two atmospheres with differing imposed-field conditions — one with a small-scale dynamo and the other with a predominantly vertical magnetic field — with similar mean field strengths at wavelengths spanning from visible to infrared. Comparing the radiative output at various viewing angles of pixels of equal vertical magnetic field strength between the two simulations, we find that the small-scale dynamo simulations produce higher radiative output than those in the predominantly vertical field simulation. This implies that the radiative output of a small magnetic structure depends on the magnetic morphology of the environment in which it is embedded, which is currently not included in SSI models. We deduce the effect on inferred irradiance by comparing the disk-integrated irradiance of these two atmospheres with standard 1D model atmospheres used in SSI modeling. Title: Assessment of and a Solution to the Intensity Diffusion Error Intrinsic in Short-Characteristic Radiative Transfer Authors: Peck, Courtney; Rast, Mark; Criscuoli, Serena Bibcode: 2017SPD....4820701P Altcode: Short characteristic radiative transfer coupled with 3D MHD simulations are routinely used to compare simulations with observations of the solar atmosphere. While it has been known that the method of short characteristics radiative transfer results in intensity diffusion, it has been routinely employed to solve radiative transfer due to its computational expediency. In this talk, we discuss the effect of spatial smearing due to short characteristics radiative transfer under both linear and high-order interpolation. We then demonstrate that linear interpolation results in an effective spatial smearing related to the number of grid heights above the τ = 1 surface and conserves intensity. Additionally, we show that the use of high-order strict monotonic interpolation reduces the amount of smearing, but at the expense of error in the integrated emergent intensity. Finally, we demonstrate that these issues can be easily avoided at no added computational expense by interpolating the atmosphere onto a ray-directed grid and computing the radiative transfer for vertical rays through the grid. Title: Magnetically Modulated Heat Transport in a Global Simulation of Solar Magneto-convection Authors: Cossette, Jean-Francois; Charbonneau, Paul; Smolarkiewicz, Piotr K.; Rast, Mark P. Bibcode: 2017ApJ...841...65C Altcode: We present results from a global MHD simulation of solar convection in which the heat transported by convective flows varies in-phase with the total magnetic energy. The purely random initial magnetic field specified in this experiment develops into a well-organized large-scale antisymmetric component undergoing hemispherically synchronized polarity reversals on a 40 year period. A key feature of the simulation is the use of a Newtonian cooling term in the entropy equation to maintain a convectively unstable stratification and drive convection, as opposed to the specification of heating and cooling terms at the bottom and top boundaries. When taken together, the solar-like magnetic cycle and the convective heat flux signature suggest that a cyclic modulation of the large-scale heat-carrying convective flows could be operating inside the real Sun. We carry out an analysis of the entropy and momentum equations to uncover the physical mechanism responsible for the enhanced heat transport. The analysis suggests that the modulation is caused by a magnetic tension imbalance inside upflows and downflows, which perturbs their respective contributions to heat transport in such a way as to enhance the total convective heat flux at cycle maximum. Potential consequences of the heat transport modulation for solar irradiance variability are briefly discussed. Title: Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope: High-resolution observing of the dynamic Sun Authors: Tritschler, A.; Rimmele, T. R.; Berukoff, S.; Casini, R.; Kuhn, J. R.; Lin, H.; Rast, M. P.; McMullin, J. P.; Schmidt, W.; Wöger, F.; DKIST Team Bibcode: 2016AN....337.1064T Altcode: The 4-m aperture Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) formerly known as the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (ATST) is currently under construction on Haleakalā (Maui, Hawai'i) projected to start operations in 2019. At the time of completion, DKIST will be the largest ground-based solar telescope providing unprecedented resolution and photon collecting power. The DKIST will be equipped with a set of first-light facility-class instruments offering unique imaging, spectroscopic and spectropolarimetric observing opportunities covering the visible to infrared wavelength range. This first-light instrumentation suite will include: a Visible Broadband Imager (VBI) for high-spatial and -temporal resolution imaging of the solar atmosphere; a Visible Spectro-Polarimeter (ViSP) for sensitive and accurate multi-line spectropolarimetry; a Fabry-Pérot based Visible Tunable Filter (VTF) for high-spatial resolution spectropolarimetry; a fiber-fed Diffraction-Limited Near Infra-Red Spectro-Polarimeter (DL-NIRSP) for two-dimensional high-spatial resolution spectropolarimetry (simultaneous spatial and spectral information); and a Cryogenic Near Infra-Red Spectro-Polarimeter (Cryo-NIRSP) for coronal magnetic field measurements and on-disk observations of, e.g., the CO lines at 4.7 μm. We will provide an overview of the DKIST's unique capabilities with strong focus on the first-light instrumentation suite, highlight some of the additional properties supporting observations of transient and dynamic solar phenomena, and touch on some operational strategies and the DKIST critical science plan. Title: The amplitude of the deep solar convection and the origin of the solar supergranulation Authors: Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2016usc..confE..91R Altcode: Recent observations and models have raised questions about our understanding of the dynamics of the deep solar convection. In particular, the amplitude of low wavenumber convective motions appears to be too high in both local area radiative magnetohydrodynamic and global spherical shell magnetohydrodynamic simulations. In global simulations this results in weaker than needed rotational constraints and consequent non solar-like differential rotation profiles. In deep local area simulations it yields strong horizontal flows in the photosphere on scales much larger than the observed supergranulation. We have undertaken numerical studies that suggest that solution to this problem is closely related to the long standing question of the origin of the solar supergranulation. Two possibilities have emerged. One suggests that small scale photospherically driven motions dominate convecive transport even at depth, descending through a very nearly adiabatic interior (more more nearly adiabatic than current convection models achieve). Convection of this form can meet Rossby number constraints set by global scale motions and implies that the solar supergranulation is the largest buoyantly driven scale of motion in the Sun. The other possibility is that large scale convection driven deeep in the Sun dynamically couples to the near surface shear layer, perhaps as its origin. In this case supergranulation would be the largest non-coupled convective mode, or only weakly coupled and thus potentially explaining the observed excess power in the prograde direction. Recent helioseismic results lend some support to this. We examind both of these possibilities using carefully designed numerical experiments, and weigh thier plausibilities in light of recent observations. Title: Supergranulation as the Largest Buoyantly Driven Convective Scale of the Sun Authors: Cossette, Jean-Francois; Rast, Mark P. Bibcode: 2016ApJ...829L..17C Altcode: 2016arXiv160604041C The origin of solar supergranulation remains a mystery. Unlike granulation, the size of which is comparable to both the thickness of the radiative boundary layer and local scale-height in the photosphere, supergranulation does not reflect any obvious length scale of the solar convection zone. Moreover, recent observations of flows in the photosphere using Doppler imaging or correlation or feature tracking show a monotonic decrease in horizontal flow power at scales larger than supergranulation. Both local area and global spherical shell simulations of solar convection by contrast show the opposite, an increase in horizontal flow amplitudes to a low wavenumber. We examine these disparities and investigate how the solar supergranulation may arise as a consequence of nonlocal heat transport by cool diving plumes. Using three-dimensional anelastic simulations with surface driving, we show that the kinetic energy of the largest convective scales in the upper layers of a stratified domain reflects the depth of transition from strong buoyant driving to adiabatic stratification below caused by the dilution of the granular downflows. This depth is quite shallow because of the rapid increase of the mean density below the photosphere. We interpret the observed monotonic decrease in solar convective power at scales larger than supergranulation to be a consequence of this rapid transition, with the supergranular scale the largest buoyantly driven mode of convection in the Sun. Title: Turbulent transport of Small-scale magnetic flux elements on Solar Photosphere Authors: Agrawal, Piyush; Rempel, Matthias; Bellot Rubio, Luis; Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2016SPD....47.1201A Altcode: We study the transport of small-scale magnetic elements on the solar photosphere using both observations and simulations. Observational data was obtained from Hinode - Solar Optical Telescope (SOT/SP) instrument and simulations from MURaM code. The magnetic flux elements were tracked in both data sets and statistics were obtained. We compute the probability density of the Eulerian distances traveled by the flux elements along Lagrangian trajectories. For a two-dimensional random walk process this distribution should be Rayleigh. Preliminary results show that the measured probability distribution in both the observed and simulated data approximates a random walk, on time scale close to the lifetime of granules, but deviates from it for longer times. This implies that diffusion may not be an appropriate framework for transport in the solar photosphere. We explore the roles of flux cancelation and element trapping in producing this result. Work is ongoing. Title: The structure and evolution of boundary layers in stratified convection Authors: Anders, Evan H.; Brown, Benjamin; Brandenburg, Axel; Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2016SPD....47.0712A Altcode: Solar convection is highly stratified, and the density in the Sun increases by many orders of magnitude from the photosphere to the base of the convection zone. The photosphere is an important boundary layer, and interactions between the surface convection and deep convection may lie at the root of the solar convection conundrum, where observed large-scale velocities are much lower than predicted by full numerical simulations. Here, we study the structure and time evolution of boundary layers in numerical stratified convection. We study fully compressible convection within plane-parallel layers using the Dedalus pseudospectral framework. Within the context of polytropic stratification, we study flows from low (1e-3) to moderately high (0.1) Mach number, and at moderate to high Rayleigh number to study both laminar and turbulent convective transport. We aim to characterize the thickness and time variation of velocity and thermal (entropy) boundary layers at the top and bottom boundaries of the domain. Title: Supergranulation as the Sun's largest buoyantly driven mode of convection Authors: Cossette, Jean-Francois; Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2016SPD....4720305C Altcode: Solar supergranulation has been characterized as horizontally divergent flow motions having a typical scale of 32 Mm using Doppler imaging, granule tracking and helioseismology. Unlike granules, the size of which is comparable to both the thickness of the radiative boundary layer and local scale height at the photosphere, supergranules do not appear to correspond to any particular length scale of the flow. Possible explanations ranging from convection theories involving Helium ionization to spatial correlation or self-organization of granular flows have been proposed as physical mechanisms to explain solar supergranulation. However, its existence remains largely a mystery. Remarkably, horizontal velocity power spectra obtained from Doppler imaging and correlation tracking of flow features at the solar surface reveal the presence of peaks corresponding to granular and supergranular scales, followed by a monotonic decrease in power at scales larger than supergranulation, which suggests that large-scale modes in the deep layers of the convection zone may be suppressed. Using 3D anelastic simulations of solar convection we investigate whether supergranulation may reflect the largest buoyantly driven mode of convection inside the Sun. Results show that the amount of kinetic energy contained in the largest flow scales relative to that associated with supergranular motions is a function of the depth of the transition from a convectively unstable to convectively stable mean stratification inside the simulation. This suggests that the observed monotonic decrease in power at scales larger than supergranulation may be explained by rapid cooling in the subphotospheric layers and an essentially isentropic solar interior, wherein convective driving is effectively suppressed. Title: Resolving the source of the solar acoustic oscillations: What will be possible with DKIST? Authors: Rast, Mark; Martinez Pillet, Valentin Bibcode: 2016SPD....4720105R Altcode: The solar p-modes are likely excited by small-scale convective dynamics in the solar photosphere, but the detailed source properties are not known. Theoretical models differ and observations are yet unable to differentiate between them. Resolving the underlying source events is more than a curiosity. It is important to the veracity of global helioseismic measurements (including local spectral methods such as ring diagram analysis) because global p-mode line shapes and thus accurate frequency determinations depend critically on the relationship between intensity and velocity during the excitation events. It is also fundamental to improving the accuracy of the local time-distance measurements because in these kernel calculations depend on knowledge of the source profile and the properties of the excitation noise. The Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) will have the spatial resolution and spectral range needed to resolve the solar acoustic excitation events in both time and space (horizontally and with height) using multi-wavelength observations. Inversions to determine the dynamic and thermodynamic evolution of the discrete small-scale convective events that serve as acoustic sources may also be possible, though determination of the pressure fluctuations associated with the sources is a challenge. We describe the DKIST capabilities anticipated and the preliminary work needed to prepare for them. Title: Interpreting Irradiance Distributions Using High-Resolution 3D MHD Simulations Authors: Peck, Courtney; Rast, Mark; Criscuoli, Serena; Uitenbroek, Han; Rempel, Matthias D. Bibcode: 2016SPD....4730302P Altcode: We present initial results of studies aimed at understanding the impact of the unresolved magnetic field distribution on solar spectral irradiance. Using high-resolution 3D MHD simulations (from MURaM code) and spectral synthesis (with the RH code), we examine the emergent spectra of two atmospheres with similar mean field strengths but differing imposed-field conditions at wavelengths spanning from visible to infrared. Comparing the contrast against the magnetic field strength for the two magnetic simulations, we find differences in the distributions of contrasts versus field strength. We repeat the analysis after convolving the images with the PSF of a typical solar telescope (1-meter) and discuss the potential implications for irradiance modeling and future steps. Title: ESA's Report to the 41st COSPAR Meeting Authors: Rast, M. Bibcode: 2016ESASP1333.....R Altcode: No abstract at ADS Title: The Effects of Magnetic Field Morphology on the Determination of Oxygen and Iron Abundances in the Solar Photosphere Authors: Moore, Christopher S.; Uitenbroek, Han; Rempel, Matthias; Criscuoli, Serena; Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2016AAS...22712501M Altcode: The solar chemical abundance (or a scaled version of it) is implemented in numerous astrophysical analyses. Thus, an accurate and precise estimation of the solar elemental abundance is crucial in astrophysics.We have explored the impact of magnetic fields on the determination of the solar photospheric oxygen andiron abundances using 3D radiation-magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of convection. Specifically, weexamined differences in abundance deduced from three classes of atmospheres simulated with the MURaM code: apure hydrodynamic (HD) simulation, an MHD simulation with a local dynamo magnetic field that has saturated withan unsigned vertical field strength of 80 G at the optical depth unity surface, and an MHD simulation with an initially imposed vertical mean field of 80 G. We use differential equivalent width analysis for diagnosing abundances derived from five oxygen and four iron spectral lines of differing wavelength, oscillator strength, excitation potential, and Lande g-factor, and find that the morphology of the magnetic field is important to the outcome of abundance determinations. The largest deduced abundance differences are found in the vertical mean field simulations and small scale unresolved field resulting from the local dynamo has a smaller impact on abundance determinations. Title: Photometric Trends in the Visible Solar Continuum and Their Sensitivity to the Center-to-Limb Profile Authors: Peck, C. L.; Rast, M. P. Bibcode: 2015ApJ...808..192P Altcode: 2015arXiv150206308P Solar irradiance variations over solar rotational timescales are largely determined by the passage of magnetic structures across the visible solar disk. Variations on solar cycle timescales are thought to be similarly due to changes in surface magnetism with activity. Understanding the contribution of magnetic structures to total solar irradiance and solar spectral irradiance requires assessing their contributions as a function of disk position. Since only relative photometry is possible from the ground, the contrasts of image pixels are measured with respect to a center-to-limb intensity profile. Using nine years of full-disk red and blue continuum images from the Precision Solar Photometric Telescope at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, we examine the sensitivity of continuum contrast measurements to the center-to-limb profile definition. Profiles which differ only by the amount of magnetic activity allowed in the pixels used to determine them yield oppositely signed solar cycle length continuum contrast trends, either agreeing with previous results and showing negative correlation with solar cycle or disagreeing and showing positive correlation with solar cycle. Changes in the center-to-limb profile shape over the solar cycle are responsible for the contradictory contrast results, and we demonstrate that the lowest contrast structures, internetwork and network, are most sensitive to these. Thus the strengths of the full-disk, internetwork, and network photometric trends depend critically on the magnetic flux density used in the quiet-Sun definition. We conclude that the contributions of low contrast magnetic structures to variations in the solar continuum output, particularly to long-term variations, are difficult, if not impossible, to determine without the use of radiometric imaging. Title: Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) Critical Science Plan Authors: Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2015IAUGA..2257167R Altcode: The Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST), formerly the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (ATST), is under construction on Haleakala, Maui HI, with expected instrument integration in 2018 and start of operations during the summer of 2019. In preparation, the National Solar Observatory (NSO) is working with the Science Working Group to formulate a critical science plan for early operations and is calling for community involvement in all stages of its development. The first step in this process is the definition of a set of critical science themes and, under each of these, use-cases that outline the scientific motivation along with the instrument suite and high level observing strategies to be employed. The use-cases will later be refined into observing proposals, which will guide the development of efficient operations tools and procedures and provide the framework for some of the first science observations to be made with the telescope. A web interface has been established to facilitate community engagement. Title: Sensitivity of Long-term Photometric Trends to Center-to-Limb Profile Variations Authors: Rast, Mark; Peck, Courtney Bibcode: 2015IAUGA..2257070R Altcode: It has been reported (Preminger et al. 2011) that the disk-integrated contrast of visible solar continuum images varies out of phase with the solar cycle, in contrast to faculae dominated models of total solar irradiance and SOHO/VIRGO measurements of the visible continuum but in qualitative agreement with SIM measurements in some spectral bands. Since only relative photometry is possible from the ground, contrast measurements are made with respect to a center-to-limb intensity profile. Using nine years of full-disk red and blue continuum images from the Precision Solar Photometric Telescope (PSPT) at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory (MLSO), we examine the sensitivity of deduced cycle related irradiance trends to the center-to-limb profile definition employed. We find that the disk integrated continuum contrast, and the integrated contrasts of the internetwork, network, and active network separately, are very sensitive to the center-to-limb definition employed. The sensitivity of the center-to-limb profile itself to changes in the Sun's surface magnetism in turn depends on how the profile is constructed, and different center-to-limb algorithms yield contradictory cycle related contrast trends. Radiometric imaging is required to determine the true center-to-limb variation of magnetic structures and unambiguously measure their contributions to solar spectral irradiance variations. Title: The Effects of Magnetic Field Morphology on the Determination of Oxygen and Iron Abundances in the Solar Photosphere Authors: Moore, Christopher S.; Uitenbroek, Han; Rempel, Matthias; Criscuoli, Serena; Rast, Mark P. Bibcode: 2015ApJ...799..150M Altcode: We have explored the impact of magnetic fields on the determination of the solar photospheric oxygen and iron abundances using three-dimensional radiation-magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of convection. Specifically, we examined differences in abundance deduced from three classes of atmospheres simulated with the MURaM code: a pure hydrodynamic (HD) simulation, an MHD simulation with a local dynamo magnetic field that has saturated with an unsigned vertical field strength of 80 G at τ = 1, and an MHD simulation with an initially imposed vertical mean field of 80 G. We use differential equivalent width analysis for diagnosing abundances derived from five oxygen and four iron lines of differing wavelength, oscillator strength, excitation potential, and Landé g-factor, and find that the morphology of the magnetic field is important to the outcome of abundance determinations. The largest deduced abundance differences are found in the vertical mean field simulations, where the O I and Fe I abundance corrections compared to the pure HD case are ~+0.011 dex and +0.065 dex respectively. Small scale unresolved field resulting from the local dynamo has a smaller impact on abundance determinations, with corrections of -0.0001 dex and +0.0044 dex in the magnetized compared to the pure HD simulations. While the overall influence of magnetic field on abundance estimates is found to be small, we stress that such estimates are sensitive not only to the magnitude of magnetic field but also to its morphology. Title: The Importance of Solar Spectral Irradiance to the Sun-Earth Connection: Lessons-learned from SORCE and Their Relevance to Future Missions Authors: Harder, J. W.; Snow, M. A.; Richard, E. C.; Rast, M.; Merkel, A. W.; Woods, T. N. Bibcode: 2014AGUFMSH33B..04H Altcode: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) mission has provided for the first time solar spectral irradiance (SSI) observations over a full solar cycle time period with wavelength coverage from the X-ray through the near infrared. This paper will discuss the lessons-learned from SORCE including the need to develop more effective methods to track on-orbit spectroscopic response and sensitivity degradation. This is especially important in using these data products as input to modern day chemistry-climate models that require very broad spectral coverage with moderate-to-high spectral and temporal resolution to constrain the solar component to the atmospheric response. A basic requirement to obtain this essential climate record is to 1) perform preflight radiometric calibrations that are traceable SI standards along with a complete specification of the instruments spectroscopic response, and 2) design the instrument to have the ability to perform instrument-only sensitivity corrections to objectively account for on-orbit degradation. The development of the NIST SIRCUS (National Institute of Science and Technology, Sources for Irradiance and Radiance Calibration with Uniform Sources) now permits the full characterization of the spectral radiometer's response, and on-orbit degradation characterization through comparisons of redundant detectors and spectrometers appears to be the most practical method to perform these corrections for the near ultraviolet through the near infrared. Going forward, we discuss a compact spectral radiometer development that will couple with advances in CubeSat technology to allow for shorter mission lengths, relatively inexpensive development and launch costs, and reduce the risk of data gaps between successive missions without compromising measurement accuracy. We also discuss the development of a radiometric solar imager that will both greatly improve the interpretation of existing Sun-as-a-star irradiance observations and provide a bridge from our current irradiance capabilities to future high spatial/temporal resolution solar physics assets such as the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST). Title: The Role of Subsurface Flows in Solar Surface Convection: Modeling the Spectrum of Supergranular and Larger Scale Flows Authors: Lord, J. W.; Cameron, R. H.; Rast, M. P.; Rempel, M.; Roudier, T. Bibcode: 2014ApJ...793...24L Altcode: 2014arXiv1407.2209L We model the solar horizontal velocity power spectrum at scales larger than granulation using a two-component approximation to the mass continuity equation. The model takes four times the density scale height as the integral (driving) scale of the vertical motions at each depth. Scales larger than this decay with height from the deeper layers. Those smaller are assumed to follow a Kolmogorov turbulent cascade, with the total power in the vertical convective motions matching that required to transport the solar luminosity in a mixing length formulation. These model components are validated using large-scale radiative hydrodynamic simulations. We reach two primary conclusions. (1) The model predicts significantly more power at low wavenumbers than is observed in the solar photospheric horizontal velocity spectrum. (2) Ionization plays a minor role in shaping the observed solar velocity spectrum by reducing convective amplitudes in the regions of partial helium ionization. The excess low wavenumber power is also seen in the fully nonlinear three-dimensional radiative hydrodynamic simulations employing a realistic equation of state. This adds to other recent evidence suggesting that the amplitudes of large-scale convective motions in the Sun are significantly lower than expected. Employing the same feature tracking algorithm used with observational data on the simulation output, we show that the observed low wavenumber power can be reproduced in hydrodynamic models if the amplitudes of large-scale modes in the deep layers are artificially reduced. Since the large-scale modes have reduced amplitudes, modes on the scale of supergranulation and smaller remain important to convective heat flux even in the deep layers, suggesting that small-scale convective correlations are maintained through the bulk of the solar convection zone. Title: The Earth's Hydrological Cycle Authors: Bengtsson, Lennart; Bonnet, R. -M.; Calisto, M.; Destouni, G.; Gurney, R.; Johannessen, J.; Kerr, Y.; Lahoz, W. A.; Rast, M. Bibcode: 2014ehc..book.....B Altcode: No abstract at ADS Title: Implications of high-resolution ATST observations for global dynamo and irradiance models Authors: Rast, Mark Bibcode: 2013SPD....4440005R Altcode: The ATST will provide unprecedented measurements of small-scale fields and flows in the solar photosphere and chromosphere, and what we learn at those scales will have implications for models of global solar behavior. We will discuss these connections in the context of two important problems: the operation of the global solar dynamo and the variability of the solar spectral irradiance. For both of these, measuring the statistical properties of small-scale magnetic flux elements and their dynamics is critical. ATST will allow exploration of the small-scale magnetohydrodynamics that underlies the turbulent diffusion processes central to dynamo behavior. ATST will also allow characterization of the magnetic substructure that underlies variation in spectral irradiance. In both cases what we learn about the small scales will have global impacts that can be studied only by including their contributions in global models statistically. Arriving at such statistical descriptions poses a compelling challenge, which we have only begun to address. Title: Understanding the Role of Small-Scale Flux in Solar Spectral Irradiance Variation Authors: Rast, M. P.; Harder, J. W. Bibcode: 2012ASPC..463...65R Altcode: Global solar spectral irradiance variations depend on changes in magnetic flux concentrations at the smallest scales. Modeling has focused on the contributions of magnetic structures in full disk images as those contributions have strong center-to-limb dependencies, but these dependencies have never been determined radiometrically; only the photometric intensity relative to some reference ‘quiet-sun’,1 the magnetic structure contrast, is measurable with ground based imagery. This is problematic because unresolved inhomogeneities influence not only the full-disk structure intensities themselves, but also the quiet-sun background against which their contrast is measured. We thus argue that, to understand the physical causes underlying solar spectral irradiance variations, two fundamental questions must be addressed: What is the real Iλ (μ) as a function of B in full-disk images? This can only be answered by imaging the Sun radiometrically from space, and we propose a Radiometric Solar Imager design. What governs spectral irradiance changes at sub arc-second scales? This can be addressed by a combination of high resolution ground based imaging (ATST-VBI) and three dimensional radiative magnetohydrodynamic modeling, and we propose a synoptic approach. Finally, a way to account for the variance introduced by unresolved substructure in spectral irradiance modeling must be devised. This is critical, as imaging and modeling at the highest resolutions but over the full solar disk will likely remain unattainable for some time. Title: Measured and modeled trends in the solar spectral irradiance variability using the SORCE SIM and SOLSTICE instruments Authors: Harder, J. W.; Fontenla, J. M.; Rast, M. P.; Snow, M. A.; Woods, T. N. Bibcode: 2011AGUFMGC22A..06H Altcode: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM) measures solar spectral variability in the 200-2400 nm range accounting for about 97% of the total solar irradiance (TSI). SIM concurrently measures ultraviolet variability from 200-310 nm with the higher spectral resolution Solar-Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE). These instruments monitored the descending phase of solar cycle 23 and are now continuing these observations in the rising phase of cycle 24. SIM and SOLSTICE observations clearly show rotational modulation of spectral irradiance due to the evolution of dark sunspots and bright faculae that respectively deplete and enhance solar radiation. In addition to this well-known phenomenon, SORCE observations indicate a slower evolutionary trend in solar spectral irradiance (SSI) over solar cycle time-scales that are both in and out of phase with the TSI, with the ultraviolet component indicating significantly larger UV variability than reported from the UARS era instruments. Wavelengths where the brightness temperature is less than Teff = 5770 K are in phase, and where the brightness temperature > Teff in the visible and infrared, the time series show an anti-solar cycle trend. This observation is discussed in terms of the Solar Radiation Physical Modeling (SRPM) program employing solar images from Precision Solar Photometric Telescope (PSPT) that provides the areas of active regions on the solar disk as function of time to generate a modeled SSI time series that is concurrent with the SORCE observations but extending back to solar maximum conditions. Comparative studies of the SIM and SOLSTICE will be presented along with analysis of solar variability derived from SRPM and PSPT. Title: The role of magnetic field in supergranular scale selection Authors: Lord, J. W.; Rast, M. P.; Rempel, M. Bibcode: 2011AGUFMSH53C..03L Altcode: We examine the role of the magnetic field in solar surface convection using the MURaM radiative MHD code. Using two 74x74x16 Mm simulations, one without magnetic field and one with an initially uniform and vertical 10 Gauss field, we investigate the role of magnetic field in supergranular scale selection. We find that the simulation with magnetic field has two peaks in the photospheric kinetic energy spectrum, one corresponding to granular size scales and a second peak near 24 Mm, while the purely hydrodynamic simulation has a single peak near the size scale of granulation (Figure 1). We examine two possible physical mechanisms which may underlie this increased power at low wavenumbers: the decreased opacity in magnetic elements near the photosphere which increases the radiative cooling there and the coupling, by regions of high magnetic flux density in convective downflows, of deeper larger scale motions to the photosphere. These mechanisms imply two very different processes. The first suggests that supergranulation is organized in the photosphere where radiation escapes the system (top down) and the second suggests that the large scale convection deep in the sun influences the scales observed in the photosphere (bottom up). Temporal cross correlation is used to examine which direction information is moving during pattern formation across scales. Additionally, a series of experiments were conducted to isolate individual physical effects, artificially increasing and decreasing the radiative losses in regions of strong magnetic flux, reducing the importance of magnetic tension, and constraining the box depth to understand the sensitivity of the size scales observed to the boundary conditions imposed. Title: Observing Evolution in the Supergranular Network Length Scale During Periods of Low Solar Activity Authors: McIntosh, Scott W.; Leamon, Robert J.; Hock, Rachel A.; Rast, Mark P.; Ulrich, Roger K. Bibcode: 2011ApJ...730L...3M Altcode: 2011arXiv1102.0303M We present the initial results of an observational study into the variation of the dominant length scale of quiet solar emission: supergranulation. The distribution of magnetic elements in the lanes that from the network affects, and reflects, the radiative energy in the plasma of the upper solar chromosphere and transition region at the magnetic network boundaries forming as a result of the relentless interaction of magnetic fields and convective motions of the Suns' interior. We demonstrate that a net difference of ~0.5 Mm in the supergranular emission length scale occurs when comparing observation cycle 22/23 and cycle 23/24 minima. This variation in scale is reproduced in the data sets of multiple space- and ground-based instruments and using different diagnostic measures. By means of extension, we consider the variation of the supergranular length scale over multiple solar minima by analyzing a subset of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory Ca II K image record. The observations and analysis presented provide a tantalizing look at solar activity in the absence of large-scale flux emergence, offering insight into times of "extreme" solar minimum and general behavior such as the phasing and cross-dependence of different components of the spectral irradiance. Given that the modulation of the supergranular scale imprints itself in variations of the Suns' spectral irradiance, as well as in the mass and energy transport into the entire outer atmosphere, this preliminary investigation is an important step in understanding the impact of the quiet Sun on the heliospheric system. Title: Modeling the Near-Surface Shear Layer: Diffusion Schemes Studied With CSS Authors: Augustson, Kyle; Rast, Mark; Trampedach, Regner; Toomre, Juri Bibcode: 2011JPhCS.271a2070A Altcode: 2010arXiv1012.4781A As we approach solar convection simulations that seek to model the interaction of small-scale granulation and supergranulation and even larger scales of convection within the near-surface shear layer (NSSL), the treatment of the boundary conditions and minimization of sub-grid scale diffusive processes become increasingly crucial. We here assess changes in the dynamics and the energy flux balance of the flows established in rotating spherical shell segments that capture much of the NSSL with the Curved Spherical Segment (CSS) code using two different diffusion schemes. The CSS code is a new massively parallel modeling tool capable of simulating 3-D compressible MHD convection with a realistic solar stratification in rotating spherical shell segments. Title: Radiative emission of solar features in the Ca II K line: comparison of measurements and models Authors: Ermolli, I.; Criscuoli, S.; Uitenbroek, H.; Giorgi, F.; Rast, M. P.; Solanki, S. K. Bibcode: 2010A&A...523A..55E Altcode: 2010arXiv1009.0227E Context. The intensity of the Ca II K resonance line observed with spectrographs and Lyot-type filters has long served as a diagnostic of the solar chromosphere. However, the literature contains a relative lack of photometric measurements of solar features observed at this spectral range.